Table 1.
Selection criteria for studies.
Table 2.
Databases search strategies.
Fig 1.
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 flow diagram for new systematic reviews, including searches of databases and registers.
Table 3.
Characteristics of the included studies.
Table 4.
Summary of effect sizes by intervention type.
Fig 2.
Effect sizes (Cohen’s d) of interventions on JPS and JPE.
Black circles (●) indicate individual effect sizes from each study, including those with the smallest and largest values. Horizontal lines (—) represent the mean effect size within each intervention category. Abbreviations: JPS: joint position sense, JPE: joint position error, FC: flexion changes, EC: extension changes, RRC: right rotation changes, LRC: left rotation changes, RFC: right flexion changes, LFC: left flexion changes, and JR: joint relocation.
Fig 3.
Risk of bias summary for randomized controlled trials evaluated with RoB-2.
Table 5.
Summary of findings (GRADE).