Table 1.
Baseline characteristics of total participants (n = 9360).
Fig 1.
Flow diagram for inclusion and exclusion of studies.
This flow diagram depicts the numbers and reasons for excluding studies based on our pre-determined criteria. The figure also illustrates the numbers of subjects who consume more than 2g of sodium per day (Regular Sodium Intake Group) and who consume 2g or less of sodium per day (Low Sodium Intake Group).
Table 2.
The multivariate logistic regression analysis for kidney dysfunction.
Fig 2.
Spline curve for the odds of kidney dysfunction in relation to sodium intake.
The odds ratio is adjusted for age, sex, body mass index (BMI), smoking status, alcohol consumption, hypertension, diabetes, coronary artery disease, pre-existing kidney disease, baseline estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), daily protein intake, blood albumin level, and hemoglobin. The black solid line represents the odds ratio (OR), while the gray transparent area indicates the 95% confidence interval (CI). The red dotted line denotes the reference point where OR = 1.
Fig 3.
Spline curves showing the odds of kidney dysfunction relative to sodium intake, differentiated by the presence of diabetes mellitus. Fig 3A presents individuals without diabetes, and Fig 3B includes individuals with diabetes. In both, the odds ratios are adjusted for age, sex, BMI, smoking status, alcohol consumption, hypertension, coronary artery disease, pre-existing kidney disease, baseline eGFR, daily protein intake, blood albumin, and hemoglobin levels. The black solid lines represent the odds ratios (ORs), the gray transparent areas denote the 95% confidence intervals (CIs), and the red dotted lines indicate the reference point where OR = 1.
Fig 4.
Spline curves showing the odds of kidney dysfunction relative to sodium intake, differentiated by the presence of hypertension.
Fig 4A presents individuals without hypertension, and Fig 4B includes individuals with hypertension. In both, the odds ratios are adjusted for age, sex, BMI, smoking status, alcohol consumption, diabetes, coronary artery disease, pre-existing kidney disease, baseline eGFR, daily protein intake, blood albumin, and hemoglobin levels. The black solid lines represent the odds ratios (ORs), the gray transparent areas denote the 95% confidence intervals (CIs), and the red dotted lines indicate the reference point where OR = 1.
Table 3.
The multivariate logistic regression analysis for proteinuria.
Fig 5.
Spline curve for the odds of proteinuria in relation to sodium intake.
The odds ratio is adjusted for age, sex, body mass index (BMI), smoking status, alcohol consumption, hypertension, diabetes, coronary artery disease, pre-existing kidney disease, baseline estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), daily protein intake, blood albumin level, and hemoglobin. The black solid line represents the odds ratio (OR), while the gray transparent area indicates the 95% confidence interval (CI). The red dotted line denotes the reference point where OR = 1.