Fig 1.
Geometric dimensions of the experimental water impact model adapted from [27].
Fig 2.
Comparison of impact force and energy between the numerical simulation and the experimental data from Gómez-Gesteira and Robert [26].
Fig 3.
Building damage caused by debris flow in Changtan town, Wanzhou, Chongqing, China, July 2023.
Fig 4.
Architectural floor plan of the masonry structure.
Table 1.
Table 2.
Influence of mesh size on computational cost and modal frequencies of a masonry structure.
Fig 5.
Numerical model.
Fig 6.
Boulder size measured in the field.
Table 3.
Parametric study cases for flow velocity variations.
Table 4.
Parametric study cases for flow depth variations.
Fig 7.
Schematic of debris flow impact on a masonry structure.
Fig 8.
Time history of the impact force for condition A90V6F0.77D1.5.
Fig 9.
Spatiotemporal evolution of a debris flow containing boulders impacting a masonry structure.
Fig 10.
Effect of flow velocity on the impact force.
Table 5.
Comparison between simulated and theoretical impact forces at flow velocities ranging from 3 to 8 m/s.
Fig 11.
Effect of flow depth on the impact force time history curves.
Fig 12.
Effect of flow velocity on von Mises stress time history curves.
Fig 13.
Contours of von Mises stress in the masonry structure at flow velocities of 3 m/s and 4 m/s.
Fig 14.
Contours of maximum principal stress in the masonry structure at flow velocities of 3 m/s and 4 m/s.
Fig 15.
Effect of flow velocity on maximum principal stress time history curves.
Fig 16.
Effect of flow depth on von Mises stress time history curves.
Fig 17.
Effect of flow velocity on displacement time history curves for masonry structures.
Fig 18.
Effect of flow depth on displacement time history curves for masonry structures.
Table 6.
Displacement of the masonry structure at flow velocities ranging from 9 to 15 m/s.
Table 7.
Limitations of inter-story displacement angle for different damage states of masonry structures [38].
Table 8.
Damage states of masonry structures.
Table 9.
Damage states of masonry structures at flow velocities ranging from 9 to 15 m/s.
Fig 19.
Impact force time history for debris flows with and without boulders under Condition A90V5F0.53D1.5.
Table 10.
Comparison of dynamic responses for debris flows with and without boulders under Condition A90V5F0.53D1.5.