Table 1.
Estimated total phenolic content (TPC), and total flavonoid content (TFC) in the defatted extract (DE) of S. malaccense and S. samarangense leaves.
Table 2.
HPLC-MS tentative identification of phenolic metabolites from the defatted extract (DE) of S. malaccense (SM) and S. samarangense (SS) leaves.
Fig 1.
Total ion chromatogram (TIC) obtained from HPLC-MS of the defatted aqueous methanol extract of S. malaccense leaves in (A) positive and (B) negative ionization modes.
Fig 2.
Total ion chromatogram (TIC) obtained from HPLC-MS of the defatted aqueous methanol extract of S. samarangense leaves in (A) positive and (B) negative ionization modes.
Table 3.
Effect of different doses of the defatted extract (DE) of the leaves of S. malaccense and S. samarangense on urea and creatinine levels. Data represented as mean±SEM of n = 7, a: significant from the control group at p < 0.001, b: significant from the CdCl2 group at p < 0.001.
Fig 3.
Effect of DE of S. malaccense and S. samarangense on A) GSH, B) SOD, C) TNF-α, D) IL-1β, E) p-NF-κB, and F) Caspase-3 levels.
Data represented as mean±SEM of n = 7. a: significant from the control group at p < 0.001, b: significant from the CdCl2 group at p < 0.001.
Fig 4.
Effect of DE of S. malaccense and S. samarangense leaves on A) ATP, B) p-mTOR, C) beclin-1, and D) p-AMPK levels.
Data represented as mean±SEM of n = 7. a: significant from the control group at p < 0.001, b: significant from the CdCl2 group at p < 0.001.
Table 4.
Effect of different doses (mg/Kg) of the defatted extract (DE) of the leaves of S. malaccense and S. samarangense on serum ALT and AST levels. Data represented as mean±SEM of n = 7, a: significant from the control group at p < 0.001, b: significant from the CdCl2 group at p < 0.001.
Fig 5.
Effect of DE of S. malaccense and S. samarangense leaves on histopathological examination of the kidney tissues.
Normal kidney samples showed intact renal parenchyma with renal tubular segments and intact tubular epithelium (arrow), intact renal corpuscles (star), and intact vasculature. CdCl2-treated samples showed multiple focal periglomerular and perivascular mononuclear inflammatory cell infiltrates accompanied by higher fibroblastic activity (red arrow) with dilatation of renal vasculatures (red star). DEs of S. malaccense and S. samarangense at 250 mg/kg doses showed mild perivascular and periglomerular inflammatory cell infiltrates (red arrow) with almost intact vasculatures and nephron segments. S. malaccense at a dose of 500 mg/kg showed higher protective efficacy with few occasional interstitial inflammatory cell infiltrates (red arrow). In comparison, the 1000 mg/kg showed higher protective efficacy with almost intact renal parenchyma. 500 mg/kg and 1000 mg/kg of S. samarangense showed a higher protective efficacy with almost intact renal parenchyma resembling normal control samples.