Fig 1.
Photographic documentation of marine sponges from the Kenyan coastline, presented as follows: (a) Biemna fistulosa (Voucher specimen (BLSi 007) (in-situ) (b) B. fistulosa (detached) (c) Callyspongia diffusa (Voucher specimen BRMu 004) (in-situ) (d) C. diffusa (detached) (e) Haliclona fascigera (Voucher specimen BLUCh 014) (in-situ) (f) Haliclona fascigera (detached) (Source: Author).
Fig 2.
Morphological and skeletal characterization of Biemna fistulosa (Voucher specimen BLSi 007).
A. Marine poriferan BLSi 007, Biemna fistulosa; B. sponge skeleton: (1sa): perpendicular section; and (1sb): a tangential section (40x magnification); C. sponge spicules: (1sc): synapta plates; (1sd) and (1se): megascleres acanthostyles; (1sf): pentactines megascleres with digits at the tentacles; (1sg): curved oxeas; (1sh): curved styles; (1si) and (1sk): stauractines megascleres with digits at the tentacles; (1sj): pentactines megascleres with digits at the tentacles; (1sl): styles; (1 sm): tabulated strongyles; (1sn): raphides; (1so): Microbiota (Coscinodiscus radiatus); (1sp) and (1sr): sterrasters; (1sq): microstrongyles; (1ss): strongyles; and (1st): dendroclones (unique to extinct sponge); D. spongin fibers: (1fa): simple elongated spongin fibers; (1fb): simple irregular spongin fibers; (1fc): Spongin fiber forming a fiber network on one end; (1fd): Spongin fiber with an irregular shape; (1fe): spongin fiber with a curved structure (Source: Author).
Fig 3.
Skeletal architecture and spicule morphology of Callyspongia diffusa (Voucher specimen BRMu 004).
A. Marine poriferan BRMu 004, Callyspongia diffusa; B. sponge skeleton: (2sa): perpendicular section; and (2sb): a tangential section (40x magnification); C. sponge spicules: (2sc) and (2sd): anchorates; (2se): strongyles; (2sf): sterrasters; (2sg): acanthostyles; (2sh): curved oxeas; (2si): styles; (2sj): S sigmas; and (2sk): C sigmas; D. spongin fibers: (2fa): twisted thick spongin fibers; (2fb): Spongin fibers with bent thickened cell walls; (2fc): spongin fibers with a complete bent (Microcoleus vaginatus attaching on the surface); (2fd): spongin fibers with an anastomosing system; and (2fe): spongin fibers with hard collagen material (spicules protruding) (Source: Author).
Fig 4.
Skeletal composition and spicule diversity of Haliclona fascigera (Voucher specimen BLUCh 014).
A. Marine poriferan BLUCh 014, Haliclona fascigera; B. sponge skeleton: (3sa): perpendicular section; and (3sb): a tangential section (40x magnification); C. sponge spicules: (3sc): synapta plates; (3sd) and (3sh): stauractines megascleres with digits at the tentacles; (3se); styles; (3sf): tuberculated curved strongyles; (3sg): large plates of calcareous deposits; (3si): styles; D. spongin fibers: (3fa): spongin fibers with a thick flat structure; (3fb): branched spongin fibers; (3fc): twisted spongin fibers with an open transparent lumen; (3fd): spongin fibers with thickened cell walls and a smooth transparent lumen (Source: Author).
Table 1.
Taxonomic affiliation of marine metazoan sponges with their closest phylogenetic relatives.
Fig 5.
Phylogenetic Relationships of Metazoan CO1 Sequences with Closely Related Sponge Species.
The phylogenetic tree was rooted using Stylissa carteri (OX422287.1). Bootstrap values exceeding 50%, derived from 1000 replications, are indicated at the branch nodes. The scale bar represents 0.05 substitutions per nucleotide.
Table 2.
Antimicrobial activities of organic crude extracts from the selected marine sponges against Escherichia coli.
Table 3.
Antimicrobial activities of organic crude extracts from the selected marine sponges against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Table 4.
Antimicrobial activities of organic crude extracts from the selected marine sponges against Staphylococcus aureus.
Table 5.
Antimicrobial activities of organic crude extracts from the selected marine sponges against Candida albicans.
Table 6.
Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of dichloromethane, methanolic, and ethyl acetate organic crude extracts of the selected marine sponges against the tested human pathogens.
Table 7.
Classification of marine sponge compounds identified via GC-MS in organic extracts from Biemna fistulosa, Callyspongia diffusa, and Haliclona fascigera collected from Kenyan waters.
Table 8.
Characteristics and antimicrobial activity of selected sponges’ natural products identified in the GC-MS analysis of Biemna fistulosa, Callyspongia diffusa, and Haliclona fascigera organic extracts.
Fig 6.
GC-MS chromatogram analysis of the methanolic extract of Biemna fistulosa (BLSi 007), highlighting four potent bioactive compounds.
Fig 7.
GC-MS chromatogram analysis of the ethyl acetate extract of Callyspongia diffusa (BRMu 004), identifying six secondary bioactive compounds.
Fig 8.
GC-MS chromatogram analysis of the methanolic extract of Haliclona fascigera (BLUCh 014), revealing five bioactive compounds.