Table 1.
Categorization of infant formula in Japan based on the ratio of sn-2 PA to total PA.
Fig 1.
The model was constructed according to the following elements: i) fecal soaped PA levels are lower in sn-2 palmitate fortified formula-fed than non-fortified formula-fed [10–12], ii) soaped PA is an alkaline salt, iii) soaped PA inhibits the growth of Bifidobacteria [20], which is known to produce acidic metabolite and thus reduces fecal pH, and iv) unknown path to increase stool pH by formula feeding. PA, palmitic acid.
Fig 2.
Results of the occupancy of Bifidobacteria and Lactobacillae in the intestinal microbiome of infants at 1 month of age.
“Breast milk” represents those who were not recorded as formula-fed infants. “High or Low sn-2 formula” represents those who were recorded the feeding of high or low sn-2 formula at least once. All feeding types were determined using data during the week before the checkup at 1 month old. Steel-Dwass analysis was performed for the statistical test. PA, palmitic acid.
Fig 3.
Associations between feeding volume of high or low sn-2 formula and Bifidobacteria or Lactobacillae occupancy in the multiple regression models.
A. Association between feeding volume of high or low sn-2 formula and the Bifidobacteria occupancy in the total microbiome. B. Association between feeding volume of high or low sn-2 formula and the Lactobacillae occupancy in the total microbiome. Each model was adjusted for use of antibiotics in infants, use of antibiotics in mothers, parity, gestational age at birth, Bifidobacterium supplementation of mothers (only for the model of Bifidobacteria), Lactobacillus supplementation of mothers (only for the model of Lactobacillae), and C-section birth. The unit for feeding volumes indicates mL/day/kg. β indicates the partial regression coefficient. ■ indicates the partial regression coefficient of each factor, and the bar indicates the 95% confidence interval of β. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01. PA, palmitic acid.
Fig 4.
Associations between fecal soaped PA levels in the multiple regression models showing Bifidobacteria or Lactobacillae occupancy in infants.
A. Association between fecal soaped PA levels and the Bifidobacteria occupancy in the total microbiome. B. Association between fecal soaped PA levels and the Lactobacillae occupancy in the total microbiome. Each model was adjusted for antibiotic use in infants, antibiotic use in mothers, parity, gestational age at birth, Bifidobacterium supplementation of mothers (only for the model of Bifidobacteria), Lactobacillus supplementation of mothers (only for the model of Lactobacillae), and C-section birth. The unit for fecal soaped PA levels indicates mg/g-dry-stool. β indicates the partial regression coefficient. ■ indicates the partial regression coefficient of each factor, and the bar indicates the 95% confidence interval of β. * p < 0.05. PA, palmitic acid.
Fig 5.
Standardized coefficients in the path model between feeding volume of high or low sn-2 PA formula and intestinal environmental factors.
The numbers on the arrows indicate path coefficients. Black arrows indicate positive associations, and white arrows indicate negative associations. # p < 0.1, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. PA, palmitic acid.