Fig 1.
The location of wind farms included in this study.
The Figure is made using the Cartopy Python package.
Fig 2.
a) Power density and b) capacity density for the wind farms presented in Fig 1 and S1 Table, plotted against wind farm area.
Fig 3.
Capacity factors for the wind farms presented in S1 Table, plottet against capacity density.
Capacity factors for Seagreen, Moray East, Sheringham Shoals and Kincardine wind farms are not shown.
Fig 4.
Sketch illustrating the mechanical energy balance of the ABL.
The blue arrows represent the kinetic energy transported into the wind farm by incoming winds. The broad green arrow represents conversion from potential to kinetic energy and the brown and red arrows represent dissipation and power production. The kinetic energy within the ABL is defined as available energy for power production. Kinetic energy above the wind farm is made available to the wind farm by vertical turbulent exchange illustrated by the mixing arrows above the turbines. Hw is the height of the wind farm and HABL is the height of the ABL.
Fig 5.
Results of Eq. 17 fitted to observed power densities.
Black dots represent observed power density and the red line the best fit of Eq. 17 to the data. a) Eq. 17 fitted to all data (27 data points). b) Eq. 17 fitted to data from wind farms with capacity larger than 100 MW (23 data points). Data from wind farms with capacity lower than 100 MW is shown by grey dots. c) Eq. 17 fitted to data from wind farms with capacity larger than 200 MW (18 data points). Data from wind farms with capacity lower than 200 MW are shown by grey dots. The dotted red lines in b) marks the upper and lower limit based on the uncertainty estimated by Eq 19.
Table 1.
Predicted power production for future wind farms.
Fig 6.
integrated from the surface to 1000 m height and averaged over the years 2020, 2021 and 2022 using NCEP-DOE reanalysis data [41].
The Figure is made using the Cartopy Python package.