Fig 1.
A schematic overview of the manuscript and the steps implemented for evaluating the proposed computational engine.
Fig 2.
HIF modeling: (a) variable resistance with inductor model, (b) two variable resistance model, (c) two antiparallel diodes model, (d) two antiparallel diodes with resistances and inductors, (e) nonlinear resistance and two antiparallel diodes, (f) two nonlinear resistances and two antiparallel diodes, and (g) two time-varying resistances.
Fig 3.
Arc model: (a) structure, and (b) the Simulink tools used to simulate the arc model.
Fig 4.
Arc model: (a) long arc representation, and (b) the Simulink tools used to simulate the long arc model.
Fig 5.
IEEE 33-bus test feeder.
Fig 6.
(a) RC is placed around a current-carrying conductor, and (b) lumped-parameters equivalent circuit of the RC.
Fig 7.
Modeling the RC in Simulink.
Fig 8.
Computational engine process for current reconstruction.
Fig 9.
(a) Commonly used sliding signal window, and (b) the sliding window for non-recursive DFT [56].
Fig 10.
Block diagram of employed real-time engine devices.
Fig 11.
Voltage waveforms: (a) at the fault point, and (b) at the measuring point.
Fig 12.
Estimated fundamental and 2nd, 3rd, and 4th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing a CR-based engine.
Fig 13.
Estimated 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing a CR-based engine.
Fig 14.
Estimated 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing CR-based engine.
Fig 15.
Estimated 13th, 14th, 15th, and 16th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing CR-based engine.
Fig 16.
Estimated 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing CR-based engine.
Fig 17.
Estimated fundamental and 2nd, 3rd, and 4th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing the Kalman filter engine.
Fig 18.
Estimated 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing the Kalman filter engine.
Fig 19.
Estimated 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing the Kalman filter engine.
Fig 20.
Estimated 13th, 14th, 15th, and 16th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing the Kalman filter engine.
Fig 21.
Estimated 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing the Kalman filter engine.
Fig 22.
Estimated fundamental and 2nd, 3rd, and 4th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing the LS-based engine.
Fig 23.
Estimated 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing the LS-based engine.
Fig 24.
Estimated 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing the LS-based engine.
Fig 25.
Estimated 13th, 14th, 15th, and 16th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing the LS-based engine.
Fig 26.
Estimated 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing the LS-based engine.
Fig 27.
Estimated fundamental and 2nd, 3rd, and 4th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing a non-recursive DFT-based engine.
Fig 28.
Estimated 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing a non-recursive DFT-based engine.
Fig 29.
Estimated 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing a non-recursive DFT-based engine.
Fig 30.
Estimated 13th, 14th, 15th, and 16th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing a non-recursive DFT-based engine.
Fig 31.
Estimated 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th harmonic orders of the fault current utilizing a non-recursive DFT-based engine.
Fig 32.
Estimated fundamental, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th harmonic orders of the noisy fault current utilizing a non-recursive DFT-based engine.
Fig 33.
Estimated 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th harmonic orders of the noisy fault current utilizing a non-recursive DFT-based engine.
Fig 34.
Estimated 9th,10th, 11th and 12th harmonic orders of the noisy fault current utilizing a non-recursive DFT-based engine.
Fig 35.
Estimated 13th,14th, 15th and 16th harmonic orders of the noisy fault current utilizing a non-recursive DFT-based engine.
Fig 36.
Estimated 17th,18th, 19th and 20th harmonic orders of the noisy fault current utilizing a non-recursive DFT-based engine.
Table 1.
Fundamental and harmonic measurement errors for all computational engines investigated.
Table 2.
Accuracy, dependability, and security assessment of several methods.