Table 2.
Characteristics of studies included in this systematic review and meta-analysis.
Fig 1.
PRISMA 2020 flowchart for the study selection process.
Table 1.
Risk of bias assessment results for 31 eligible studies.
Fig 2.
Distribution of mortality and respiratory hospitalizations by exposure type.
Fig 3.
Forest plot of meta-analysed associations between exposure to solid fuel smoke and all-cause under-five mortality.
Fig 4.
Funnel plot of the meta-analyzed association between exposure to solid fuel smoke and all-cause under-five mortality (X-axis -logarithmic scale of OR (logOR) Y-axis-standard error of logOR.
Fig 5.
Forest plot of meta-analysed associations between exposure to passive smoking and pneumonia in children under-five years.