Fig 1.
The northwestern Italian Peninsula area and the mentioned sites.
Symbols refer to the MIS 3 chronocultural phases present on-site: Circle, only Mousterian, Lozenge, Mousterian and Aurignacian, Triangle, Mousterian, Uluzzian, and Aurignacian. 1: Balzi Rossi, 2: Santa Lucia Superiore, 3: Arma delle Manie, 4: Tecchia d’Equi, 5: Pontecosi, 6: Grotta all’Onda e Buca del Tasso, 7: Buca della Iena e Grotta del Capriolo, 8: Massaciuccoli, 9: Grotta La Fabbrica, 10: Grotta dei Santi. MIS 3 eustatic sea level lines from 55 to 35 ka cal BP [44] are reported on the modern bathymetry. Black solid line is the modern coastline. Map created with QGIS 3.36 Maidenhead, elevation data elaborated from GEBCO_grid 2023 [45].
Fig 2.
Northwestern Tuscany and the exact location of Buca della Iena and Grotta del Capriolo (red dot and black star symbol).
Map created with QGIS 3.36 Maidenhead, the GEBCO_Grid 2023 [45].
Fig 3.
Buca della Iena reconstructed trenches and the northern profile sketch.
The grid is 1x1m. The x and number indicate the approximate positions of spits. Redrawn and modified by Jacopo Gennai [60].
Fig 4.
Grotta del Capriolo excavation trenches.
A 1 × 1 m grid is superimposed. Sourced from [60].
Fig 5.
Grotta del Capriolo profile sections sketches.
Top left: Trench A, Top right: Trench B, Bottom: Transversal section across the three sections. The x and number indicate the approximate positions of spits. On the left side of the transversal section the newly reconstructed levels’ positions are shown. Redrawn and modified by Jacopo Gennai [60].
Table 1.
Samples of bone tested for collagen content prior to radiocarbon dating.
Table 2.
Buca della Iena lithic artefacts categories and counts.
Fig 6.
Buca della Iena lithic artefacts from levels 5 to 9.
IDs above each artefact correspond to IDs reported in S2 and S3 Files. Core: BI-1, BI-2; Core-Edge Flake: BI-109, BI-130 (Levallois); Flake: BI-32; Levallois Blade: BI-102; Levallois Recurrent Flake: BI-103, BI-136, BI-58, BI-73, BI-95; Overshot Flake: BI-40; Pseudo-Levallois point: BI-74. Pictures Jacopo Gennai.
Fig 7.
Buca della Iena lithic artefacts from levels 10 to 14.
IDs above each artefact correspond to IDs reported in S2 and S3 Files. Core: BI-64, BI-128; Core-Edge Flake: BI-41 (Levallois), BI-68 (Discoid); Cortical Flake: BI-122; Discoid Flake: BI-9; Levallois Blade: BI-134; Levallois Recurrent Flake: BI-132, BI-133, BI-138, BI-50, BI-57; Pseudo-Levallois point: BI-43 (Discoid). Pictures Jacopo Gennai.
Fig 8.
Buca della Iena lithic artefacts from stratigraphically unreliable context.
Core: BI-66, BI-129; Core-Edge Flake: BI-120; BI-42 (Discoid); Cortical Flake: BI-3; Levallois Blade: BI-84; Levallois Recurrent Flake: BI-121, BI-44, BI-46, BI-55, BI-89, BI-97; Pseudo-Levallois point: BI-91. Pictures Jacopo Gennai.
Fig 9.
Buca della Iena frequency of blanks throughout the sequence.
The frequency is reported in percentages and pertains only to the stratigraphically reliable assemblage.
Fig 10.
Buca della Iena frequency of technological type throughout the sequence.
The frequency is reported in percentages and pertains only to the stratigraphically reliable assemblage.
Fig 11.
Buca della Iena artefacts densities (number of artefacts/single level volume) throughout the sequence.
It assesses densities only in the stratigraphically reliable sectors.
Table 3.
Grotta del Capriolo lithic artefacts categories and counts.
Fig 12.
Grotta del Capriolo lithic artefacts from levels 1 to 3.
IDs above each artefact correspond to IDs reported in S2 and S3 Files. Core-Edge Flake: A2-1-17 (Discoid), A2-1-21, A2-1-7, A2-2-14, A2-2-2, A2-3-4 (Discoid), A3-2-2 (Levallois); Cortical Flake: A2-1-1, A2-2-12, A2-2-21; Levallois point: A2-2-11 Levallois Preferential Flake: A3-2-3; Levallois Recurrent Flake: A2-1-9, A2-2-17, A2-3-10; Overshot Flake: A2-1-19 (Levallois), A2-1-6, A4-3-7 (Discoid); Pseudo-Levallois point: A3-3-5 (Discoid). Pictures Jacopo Gennai.
Fig 13.
Grotta del Capriolo lithic artefacts from levels 4 to 7.
IDs above each artefact correspond to IDs reported in S2 and S3 Files. Core-Edge Flake: A4-4-2; Cortical Flake: A4-4-1; Levallois Blade: A2-4-10, A3-5-2, A3-5-5; Levallois point: A5-6-1; Levallois Recurrent Flake: A2-4-8, A3-7-1. Pictures Jacopo Gennai.
Fig 14.
Grotta del Capriolo lithic artefacts from stratigraphically unreliable context.
IDs above each artefact correspond to IDs reported in S2 and S3 Files. Volumetric Blade: Tozzi B2-3, C3-7-2; Core-Edge Flake: B2-7-26 (Levallois), C2-6-9; Cortical Flake: B1-1-19, B2-7-20, B2-7-5; Discoid Flake: B2-1-1, B2-8-26: Levallois Blade: 417, 423, B2-7-17, B3-12-4, B4-11-4, B4-12-2, C2-10-2, Tozzi B3-1; Levallois point: B3-12-2, Tozzi B2-1; Levallois Recurrent Flake: B1-1-13, B2-10-4 + B2-10-8, B3-9-9; Predetermining Flake: 418; Pseudo-Levallois point: B2-6-2 (Levallois). Pictures Jacopo Gennai.
Fig 15.
Grotta del Capriolo frequency of blanks throughout the sequence.
The frequency is reported in percentages and pertains only to the stratigraphically reliable assemblage.
Fig 16.
Grotta del Capriolo frequency of technological type throughout the sequence.
The frequency is reported in percentages and pertains only to the stratigraphically reliable assemblage.
Fig 17.
Grotta del Capriolo artefacts densities (number of artefacts/volume of levels) throughout the sequence.
It assesses only stratigraphically reliable sectors.
Table 4.
NISP from each level of Buca della Iena.
Table 5.
MNI from each level of Buca della Iena.
Fig 18.
Buca della Iena frequency of bones with taphonomical traces (red) and without taphonomical traces (blue).
Data is expressed in percentage and organised according to stratigraphical levels.
Fig 19.
Buca della Iena frequency of human (blue) and hyaena (red) identified alterations on bones.
Data is expressed in percentage and organised according to stratigraphical levels.
Fig 20.
Buca della Iena bone’s surfaces alterations.
a) Cut mark from C7; b) Cut mark from F15; c) Butchery mark form D9; d) Digested fragment by hyena from F15; e-f) Punctures and gnaw marks by hyena from F15; g) Nibbling stick from F15; h) Ichnotraces by saprophagous insects from F15; i) Manganese patina from F15.
Table 6.
NISP and MNI of Grotta del Capriolo.
Fig 21.
Grotta del Capriolo frequency of bones with taphonomical traces (red) and without taphonomical traces (blue).
Data is expressed in percentage and organised according to excavation sectors.
Fig 22.
Grotta del Capriolo frequency of human (blue) and small carnivores (red) identified alterations on bones.
Data is expressed in percentage and organised according to excavation sectors.
Fig 23.
Grotta del Capriolo bone’s surfaces alterations.
a) Cut mark and manganese patina from A2-4; b-c) Gnaw marks and manganese patina from A3-4; d) Gnaw marks from A2-4.
Table 7.
Radiocarbon and stable isotope results obtained from 6 samples from Buca della Iena and 4 samples from Grotta del Capriolo.
Fig 24.
Bayesian age modern for Buca della lena.