Table 1.
The division of cognitive attributes of PISA.
Table 2.
Q Matrix of 12 items in PISA.
Table 3.
Parameter statistics of different models.
Table 4.
Residuals of 12 items in PISA for LLM and LCDM.
Table 5.
The proportion distribution of six core mathematical competencies in four regions.
Fig 1.
Probability distribution of mastery of students’ six mathematical competencies in four regions.
Fig 2.
Students’ mathematics learning path in Shanghai, Taiwan, Macau and Hong Kong.