Fig 1.
3D Scaffold modelling for FE analysis: (a) two sub-units of basic unit cells in WP structure; (b) feature point coordinates for 3D modeling; (c) WP scaffold unit cell; (d) two groups of scaffold models along with reference scaffold and (e)the boundary condition applied in FE analysis.
Table 1.
Structural features and dimensional properties of designed scaffold models.
Table 2.
SLM process parameters.
Fig 2.
Uniaxial compression test: (a) additively manufactured Ti64 metal WP-scaffold models; (b) digital microscope images of a scaffold from front, side and top views enlarged at 1X (up) and 3X (down) and (c) uniaxial compression test setup at 250kN UTM.
Fig 3.
Hemodynamic analysis: (a) extracted porous domain of scaffold for CFD analysis; (b) velocity contours through the porous domain of scaffold and (c) cross-sectional planes of porous domain where velocities are depicted.
Table 3.
Hemodynamic input parameters for computational fluid flow analysis.
Table 4.
Features size and mass fidelity of fabricated scaffolds over respective scaffold design.
Fig 4.
(a) Deformation response of specimen WP90 compressed under UTM machine and (b) equivalent (von-Mises) stress distribution on WP scaffolds as a result of FE analysis.
Fig 5.
Stress-strain curves relating to various scaffold models from axial compression experiments (a) under UTM; (b) elastoplastic FE analysis and (c) obtained compressive modulus and yield strength of the scaffold models. (d) The relative compressive modulus of WP scaffolds plotted against relative density and compared with existing studies of (i) open cellular structures, (ii) trabecular bone and (iii) FE analysis results applied with Johnson-Cook material model on WP lattices. (e) Fatigue strength to finite life curves of fabricated and designed scaffolds.
Fig 6.
Pressure distribution contours for the WP scaffolds.
Fig 7.
Velocity contours for different scaffold models on mid x-y plane and y-z plane.
Fig 8.
Wall shear stress (WSS) contours for different WP scaffolds.
Fig 9.
WSS and permeability: (a) frequency curves of wall shear stress distribution in different WP scaffold groups on its percentage wall area; (b) permeability curves plotted against relative density of Group-1 and Group-2 scaffolds compared with actual trabecular bone’s permeability range.
Table 5.
Proposed applications of WP scaffolds in bone replacement across different anatomical regions.