Table 1.
Residue variables recorded after exposure.
Fig 1.
Visual characteristics of antler production residues after short-term weathering exposure (Exp49/154; 36weeks): local distribution on the butt (a+b), strong degree of smearing (d), translucent under bright field (a+b), brown discolouration under cross-polarized light (b+c), flat topography (c+d), internal cracks (d) and sharp edges (d) (a+b = x100; c+d = x200).
Table 2.
Observed characteristics of production residues exposed to short-term weathering.
Table 3.
Observed characteristics of hafting residues exposed to short-term weathering.
Table 4.
Observed characteristics for use residues exposed to short-term weathering.
Table 5.
Observed characteristics for production residues after exposition to weathering for three years.
Fig 2.
a) antler production residue after 36 weeks displaying a significant degree of smearing b) EDS spectrum of antler residue with characteristic calcium and phosphorus peaks (a = x300).
Table 6.
Observed characteristics of hafting residues exposed to weathering for three years.
Table 7.
Observed characteristics for use residues exposed to weathering for three years.
Table 8.
Observed characteristics for production residues after three-year burial.
Table 9.
Observed characteristics for hafting residues after three-year burial.
Table 10.
Observed characteristics for use residues after three-year burial.
Fig 3.
Possible bone hafting residue after four weeks of weathering a) Tool Exp49/163 b) possible bone shaft residue embedded in resin and beeswax mixture on tool EXP49/163 c) EDS analysis of the possible bone residue, indicating Calcium and Phosphorus peaks(b = x160).
Fig 4.
Wood hafting residue after two weeks of weathering a) Tool Exp49/165b) wood haft residue on right ventral surface characterised by a significant degree of smearing (b = x200).
Fig 5.
Visual characteristics of resin and beeswax residues after short-term weathering exposure: Brown discolouration (a+b+c+d), high fungal density (c), striations from hafting (d). (a = Exp49/132; 34 weeks), (b = Exp49/137; 30 weeks), (c = Exp49/178; 44 weeks), (d = Exp49/134, 10 weeks) (a = x21.5; b = x107; c = x100; d = x200).
Fig 6.
Visual characteristics of butchering residues after short-term weathering exposure: Strong loss leading to poor densities (a), weak association with the used edge (a), black discolouration of blood (a + b), amorphous appearance (c+d), and blood cells only visible under transmitted light (e + f) (a+b+c = EXP49/138; 38 weeks), (d+e+f = EXP49/137; 30 weeks)–(f = stained with Safranin O) (a = x107; b = x180; c = x180; d = x107; e = x400; f = x400).
Fig 7.
Visual characteristics of bone residues after short-term weathering exposure: Strong association with the used edge (a), (b), (e); significant degree of smearing (e), (f); brown discolouration (a), (b), (c); sharp edges and internal cracks (c), (d) (a+e+f = EXP49/132; 42 weeks), (b+c = EXP49/151; 8 weeks), (d = EXP49/170; 24 weeks)) (a = x11.2; b = x200; c = x200; d = x200; e = x150; f = x200).
Fig 8.
Visual characteristics of bone residues after short-term weathering exposure: Strong association with the used edge (a+b), strong degree of smearing (c), visible plant cells (d+e), cellulose fibres (f) (a+b = EXP49/135; 28 weeks) (c = EXP49/154; 36 weeks) (d = EXP49/136; 18 weeks) (e+f = EXP49/146; 24 weeks)) (a = x9.8; b = x25; c = x350; d = x250; e = x500; f = x400).
Fig 9.
Visual characteristics of observed environmental residues: Accidental feathers (a+b); accidental insect wings (c+d), legs (d) and blood cells (d); environmental wood (e+f) (a+b = exp49/136; 18 weeks), (c+d = exp49/164; 42 weeks),(e = exp49/134; 10 weeks),(f = exp49/175; 6weeks)) (a = x45; b = x430; c = x400; d = x400; e = x100; f = x200).
Fig 10.
Observed residue loss for each residue type (loss scale: 0 = absent; 1 = weak; 2 = intermediate; 3 = strong; 4 = complete).
Fig 11.
Residue loss for the different residue causes (loss scale: 0 = absent; 1 = weak; 2 = intermediate; 3 = strong; 4 = complete).
Fig 12.
Wood cutting tool exp49/139 before and after being exposed to weathering for 26 weeks.
The wood residue on the dorsal surface is preserved in higher densities on the ventral than on the dorsal surface. The resin beeswax remained completely intact.
Fig 13.
Residue loss for the different residue types and tool surfaces (DO = dorsal; VE = ventral) (loss scale: 0 = absent; 1 = weak; 2 = intermediate; 3 = strong; 4 = complete).
Fig 14.
Observed densities (a) and loss (b) versus exposure time in weeks for soft animal residues.
Fig 15.
Observed densities (a) and loss (b) versus exposure time in weeks for wood use residues.
Fig 16.
Observed densities (a) and loss (b) versus exposure time in weeks for resin and beeswax residues.
Fig 17.
Impact of two-week weathering exposure on stone tool residues.
The impact on the butchering residues of exp49/165 (a+b) is significantly higher than on the wood (c+d) or resin and beeswax residues(a+b+c+d) of exp49/141.
Fig 18.
Visual characteristics of authigenic calcium deposit on the butt of tool exp49/53 (Rochefort; 3 years): Isolated location on the butt (a+b), white colour (b+c+d), the granular internal structure (d)) (a = x47; b = x180; c = x200; d = x500).
Fig 19.
Visual characteristics of hafting residues after three-year weathering on tool exp49/44 (Rochefort; 3years): Intense fungal growth (a), dark brown discolouration of resin and beeswax (a+b), authigenic calcium deposit on resin beeswax (b), dark brown discolouration of wood hafting residues (d)) (a = x88; b = x19; c = x22; d = x120).
Fig 20.
Visual characteristics of wood use residues after three-year weathering: Strong association with the used edge (a+b+c+d), an intermediate degree of smearing (c+d), perpendicular directionality against the used edge (c+d), dark brown discolouration (a+b) (black arrows indicate wood use residues; red arrow indicates environmental wood) (a+b+d = exp49/08; Lommel) (c = exp49/07; Lommel)) (a = x30; b = x65; c = x46; d = x200).
Fig 21.
Visual characteristics of plant use residues after three-year weathering: Dispersed distribution (a), weak association with the used edge (a+c), intermediate degree of smearing (c), dark brown discolouration (a+b), intact plant cells (d)) (a = x30; b = x65; c = x200; d = x800).
Fig 22.
Visual characteristics of bone use residues on tool exp49/31 (Rochefort) after three-year weathering: Isolated distribution (a+b), strong association with the used edge, highly reflective appearance under bright field reflected light (a), brown, cracked and flat under cross-polarized light (b)) (a = x200; b = x200).
Fig 23.
Visual characteristics of possible hide use residues on tool exp49/44 (Rochefort) after three-year weathering: Dispersed distribution (a+c), intermediate association with the used edge (a+c+d), brown discolouration on the dorsal surface (a+b), and translucent appearance on the ventral surface (c-f), best visible with DAPI fluorescence filter (d)) (a = x13.8; b = x50; c = x80; d = x80; e = x100; f = x500).
Fig 24.
Visual characteristics of environmental residues after three-year weathering a) environmental wood tissue strongly associated with the used edge of bone working tool (Exp49/31) (b) detail of environmental wood residue on tool Exp49/31 c) Exp49/08 surrounded with wood fragments from humus d) Insect wing on woodworking tool Exp49/27 (a+b = EXP49/31; Rochefort); (c = exp49/08; Lommel); (d = Exp49/27; Lommel)) (a = x34; b = x180; c = x7.2; d = x200).
Fig 25.
Visual characteristics of antler production residues on tool exp49/50 (Scladina) after three-year burial: Local distribution on the butt (a+b), a significant degree of smearing (C), flat topography a-d), sharp edges and internal cracks) (a = x19.4; b = x30; c = x90; d = x60).
Fig 26.
Visual characteristics of calcium residues adhering to resin beeswax that can be mistaken for bone handle residues on exp49/12 (three-year burial; scladina) a) authigenic calcium deposit on top of resin-beeswax mixture b) detail of calcium deposition, showing the microcrystalline structure) (a = x130; b = x500).
Fig 27.
Visual characteristics of rootlet residues that can be mistaken for wood handle residues on a) Exp49/48 (three-year; Val-Meer) b) plant tissue identified as rootlet due to the presence of intact dark brown epidermal tissue (2) with hollow morphology (2) and light brown xylem tissue with large rectangular cells (1) and an absent degree of smearing (b = x52).
Fig 28.
Visual characteristics of sole leather binding residues (Exp49/12; Scladina) that were identified after three-year burial: Twisted nature remained (a+b), fine fibrous structure (c+d) (a = x63; b = x55; c = x120; d = x175).
Fig 29.
Visual characteristics of bone scraping residues after three-year burial: Strong association with the used edge (a+b+c+e), a significant degree of smearing (a,b), perpendicular directionality against the used edge (a+e), flat topography (e+f), brown discolouration (c+d), sharp edges and internal cracks (f)) (a = x54; b = x85; c = x500; d = x200; e = x300; f = x600).
Fig 30.
Visual characteristics of hide scraping residues on tool 49/38 (Lommel) after three-year burial: Strong association with the used edge (a+b), a significant degree of smearing (a,b), perpendicular directionality against the used edge (a+b), amorphous fat deposits (a+b+c), isolated hairs (c+e) with intact cuticles (d) and degraded hair shaft (f)) (a = x60; b = x110; c = x60; d = x600; e = x33; f = x350).
Fig 31.
Visual characteristics of soft plant scraping residues on tool 49/14 (Rochefort) after three-year burial: Intermediate association with the used edge, absent degree of smearing, absent directionality against the used edge, intact plant cells (b), fungal growth (a)) (a = x79; b = x180).
Fig 32.
Visual characteristics of wood scraping residues after three-year burial: General poor densities (a) strong association with the used edge (a+c), no smearing (b+c+d), visible plant cells (d) a = Exp49/12 (Scladina); b = Exp49/55 (Lommel); c+d = exp49/52 (Rochefort)) (a = x31.5; b = x100; c = x104; d = x180).
Table 11.
Observed densities and loss for the resin/beeswax residues.
Table 12.
Observed densities and loss for wood scraping residues.
Table 13.
Observed densities and loss for bone scraping residues.
Table 14.
Observed densities and loss for plant scraping residues.
Table 15.
Observed densities and loss for hide scraping residues.
Table 16.
Properties of colour change for the observed residues.
Table 17.
Observed densities and loss for the wood scraping residues.
Fig 33.
Differential fungal growth and wood preservation (a) Less intense fungal growth (d2) on distal dorsal end of tool Exp49/08 that was deposited on Lommel soil surface (b) Intense fungal growth (d4) on distal dorsal end tool Exp49/53 that was deposited on the Rochefort soil surface) (a = x65; b = x45.5).