Fig 1.
Geographical map displaying sampling locations.
Triangles mark the sampling sites of all MSEA and ISEA populations included in the analysis. In the inset, crosses and circles mark the sampling locations of the 10 new and 17 previously published Vietnamese populations, respectively. For the Vietnamese populations, labels are color-coded by language family, as indicated in the legend. All the populations outside of Vietnam included here speak AN languages, and their locations are color-coded by mtDNA and MSY. The comparative populations for mtDNA and MSY analyses are numbered according to S1 and S4 Tables, respectively. The map was generated with QuantumGIS (Version 3.34), Opensource Geospatial Foundation (https://www.qgis.org/), and country administrative boundaries that were downloaded from https://www.diva-gis.org/.
Fig 2.
Genetic diversity indices shown as the percent difference from the mean.
(A) Haplotype diversity. (B) Nucleotide diversity. Crosses and dots represent MSY and mtDNA data, respectively. Population labels are color-coded by language family, with Austroasiatic in purple, Austronesian in red, Tai-Kadai in yellow, Hmong-Mien in black, and Sino-Tibetan in green. The gray line indicates the mean across populations.
Fig 3.
mtDNA haplotype sharing between Vietnamese and non-Vietnamese AN populations.
mtDNA shared haplotype frequencies are represented by the blue gradient. Population labels are color-coded by language family with Austroasiatic in purple, Vietnamese Austronesian in red, Thai Austronesian in olive drab, Tai-Kadai in yellow, Hmong-Mien in black, Sino-Tibetan in lime, Cambodian Austronesian in pink, Taiwanese Austronesian in blue, Philippine Austronesian in brown, Indonesian Austronesian in orange, and Malaysian Austronesian in turquoise.
Fig 4.
Correspondence analysis plot based on haplogroup frequencies of Vietnamese and non-Vietnamese populations.
(A) mtDNA. (B, C) MSY, with the plot on the right (C) zooming in on the region indicated by the dashed rectangle in the full plot (B). Population labels are color-coded by language family with Austroasiatic in purple, Vietnamese Austronesian in red, Tai-Kadai in yellow, Hmong-Mien in black, Sino-Tibetan in lime, Cambodian Austronesian (Cham-CB-Bat and Cham-CB-Kam) in pink, Thai Austronesian in olive drab, Taiwanese Austronesian in blue, Philippine Austronesian in brown, Indonesian Austronesian in orange, and Malaysian Austronesian in turquoise. Haplogroup labels are in gray.