Fig 1.
Map of the study area showing (A) Location of Sudan in Africa (B) Location of South Darfur in Sudan (C) Sentinel-2 Image of the study area.
Fig 2.
Mean annual rainfall and temperature time series data of the study area from 1992–2022 [37].
Table 1.
Details of Sentinel-2 satellite image used in this study.
Fig 3.
Sentinel 2 satellite bands combinations (Red: B8, Green: B4, and Blue: B3) for the year 2016 and 2022.
Fig 4.
NDVI map.
Fig 5.
Photos showing the different land cover classes; (A) Bareland (B) Agricultural land (C) Sand with vegetation in the background (D) Built-up (E) Vegetation Cover.
Table 2.
Description of LULC classes.
Fig 6.
Raster buffer map, showing the climate change affected region represent lowly affected region and IDPs with climate change affected region represent highly affected region.
Fig 7.
Workflow used to analyze land use and land cover changes.
Table 3.
Overall accuracy (%) and kappa coefficient values of three different Machine Learning (ML) algorithms used to classify Sentinel 2 satellite imagery.
Table 4.
LULC classes areas and percentages.
Fig 8.
The classified maps of Kas locality for 2016 and 2022.
Table 5.
LULC changes in Kas locality between 2016 and 2022.
Fig 9.
Vegetation cover change detection map of 2016–2022.
Table 6.
Land cover areas and changes in the two buffer zones.
Table 7.
LULC transition matrix (km2).