Fig 1.
Köppen-Geiger climate map showing location of dated Middle Palaeolithic sites in India.
Spatial distribution of Middle Palaeolithic sites shows varying climatic context of Levalloisian assemblages in India. (Credit: The map is visualized using QGIS, adapting open access Köppen-Geiger climate map at https://koppen.earth/).
Fig 2.
Map showing the location of Retlapalle and other sites in the Gundlakamma basin.
(Credit: The map is visualized in QGIS using SRTM dataset from https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/.
Fig 3.
Stratigraphy of Retlapalle: (a) Composite lithostratigraphy of fluvial sequence in Upper Gundlakamma basin, showing geochronological data; (b) Photograph of Retlapalle step-trench, showing exposed litho-units at the site.
Fig 4.
Results of p-IR-IRSL analyses of sample RTP-18-4 from Unit E.
a: typical feldspar shine down curve; b: typical dose response curve; c: radial plot representing the estimated palaeodoses; d: typical g-value data.
Table 1.
Composition of the assemblage recovered from step-trench and surface grid.
Fig 5.
Levallois reductions from the assemblage.
A: Unidirectional Recurrent Levallois Core; b: Recurrent Levallois Core; c: Preferential Levallois Core.
Fig 6.
Composite lithic illustrations from Layer E assemblage.
a to e: Prepared core flakes; f to i: Levallois flakes; j to o: Blades; p: Diminutive hand axe; q: Multiplatform core; r and s: Discoidal Cores; t and u: recurrent Levallois cores; V: Levallois point core; w: preferential Levallois core; x and y: blade cores.
Table 2.
Statistical data for core attributes.
Table 3.
Technological breakdown of the flakes in the assemblage.
Table 4.
Statistical data for the flake attributes.
Fig 7.
Middle Palaeolithic tools from Layer B (post-YTT; all of these artefacts are surface collections from 11 different sites associated with Layer B of composite stratigraphy of Gundlakamma river basin (see ref. 23 and 25 for more details) and shown together for representative purposes): A1—A3: scrapers, A4 –A10; blades, A11 –Levallois flake, A12 –A15: borers, A16 –A19: tanged points; A20-A28: Levallois points; A29: recurrent Levallois core, A30: unidirectional core, and A31: blade core. Middle Palaeolithic tools from Layer D (B1 –B26; pre-YTT: all of these artefacts are surface collections from 12 different sites associated with Layer D and shown together for representative purposes of composite stratigraphy of Gundlakamma river basin (see ref. 23 and 25 for more details) and shown together for representative purposes): B1 –B4: scrapers, B5 –B6: borers, B7—B8: Levallois flakes, B9 –B11: blades, B12 –B15: tanged points, B16 –B17: Levallois points, B18 –B22: retouched points, B23: bidirectional Levallois core, B24: unidirectional core, and B25 –B26: recurrent Levallois cores.
Fig 8.
Occurrence of Indian MP sites across glacial-interglacial conditions show highly variable palaeoclimatic context of MP assemblages: (a) Dated Middle Palaeolithic sites in India; (b—d) Compound-specific δ13C and δD measurements of long-chain plant-wax compounds from Mahanadi fan (Bay of Bengal), demonstrating shifts in vegetation and precipitation patterns during different glacial-interglacial transitions in last 500 ka (28); (e) δ18O and δ13C record from Bitto cave speleothem in N. India also compliments Mahanadi dataset (27).