Fig 1.
Camera traps deployed in Bighorn (left, yellow points) and Castle (right, purple points) areas in Alberta, Canada (inset). Shading represents different types of recreation management: PLREC: Public Land Recreation, PLUZ: Public Land Use Zone, PP: Provincial Park, PRA: Provincial Recreation Area, WA: Wilderness Area, and WPP: Wildland Provincial Park. Base Map: OpenStreetMap: https://www.openstreetmap.org/copyright].
Table 1.
Predictor variables used in our HMSC model to estimate effects of recreation and landscape on mammal space use.
For continuous variables, we show the mean and range (minimum and maximum) of values estimated at the camera trap sites. For categorical variables, we show the number of categories and which category was used as a reference level using an asterisk (*). BH referred to Bighorn and CA to Castle. Sources of each dataset can be found in S1 File.
Fig 2.
Variance explained (pseudo R2, top graph) and proportion of explained variance (bottom graph) for each species. “Random” represents the variance accounted for by the station level random effect; “Effort” represents the variance accounted for by the camera deployment length; “Landscape” includes: Elevation, Distance to water, Land Cover and NDVI; “Influencing Factors” includes the trail designation, % forest, % human footprint, Management Type, and Season; “Recreation” includes the main effects of distance, density and Strava; “Recreation interaction” includes the interaction effects between each factor of “Recreation” and “Influencing Factors”.
Fig 3.
(above) Proportion of total variation in species detections.
The proportion of total variation was obtained by multiplying the variation partitioning by the corresponding pseudo R2 for each species (see Fig 2). In a) we combined the proportion of total variation of Strava, distance, and density with interaction factors. In b), c) and d) we showed, respectively, the results of the density, distance, and Strava measures in interaction.
Fig 4.
Subset of species responses to recreation with interacting factors.
We only show responses for interactions that were significant for at least one species. Effect coefficients with at least 95% posterior probability above zero are shown in red with a “+”, or below zero in blue with a “-“. Predators are in orange, ungulates in green and small mammals in pink. Vertical lines separate the different recreation measures. DT = Designation Trail, HF = Human Footprint. For full estimates and confidence intervals, see S3 Fig.
Fig 5.
Conditional effects of a) density in interaction with the type of management. Values of management reflect the level of wilderness and recreation management in our study areas: public lands (value 1), Public Land Use Zones (PLUZs,) PLREC Public Land Recreation (PLREC), Provincial Recreation Areas (PRAs) (value 2), Provincial Park (PP) value 3 and Wildland Provincial Park (WPP) (value 4), b) density in interaction with the type of recreation, c) distance in interaction with the season, and d) Strava in interaction with non-motorized activities. Species represented with a response with at least 95% posterior probability (see Fig 3).