Fig 1.
Map of a.) Location of Santarém and b.) Excavated area of Avenida 5 de Outubro. Map in Fig 1A). drawn by MacRoberts RA and adapted from Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Portugal-CIA_WFB_Map.png), CC public domain. Map in Fig 1B.) taken from openstreetmap.org licensed under the Open Data Commons Open Database Licence (ODbL).
Fig 2.
Geological map of Santarém and sampled sites for bioavailable 87Sr/86Sr baseline.
Map drawn by MacRoberts RA and adapted from the LNEG (Laboratório Nacional de Energia e Geologia) 1: 50 000 geological raster maps “31-A” and “31-C”. (https://geoportal.lneg.pt/pt/dados_abertos/cartografia_geologica/cgp50k/) [67]. Both geological raster maps 31-A and 31-C are published under CC By 4.0. (31-A: https://sig.lneg.pt/metadados/catalog/search/resource/details.page?uuid=831fb1df-e743-4e23-97d0-91af58d46f02; 31-C: https://sig.lneg.pt/metadados/catalog/search/resource/details.page?uuid=20486b7f-20be-4506-aa88-5caacc5d6946).
Fig 3.
Image of intersecting graves 955 and 956 with differing orientations.
Republished from [91] under a CC BY license, with permission from Medievalista, original copyright 2012.
Table 1.
Human skeletal material.
Fig 4.
Grave orientation classification, diagram showing the direction that skeletons would face in right lateral position with faces turned towards the east or southeast, and the direction from Santarém towards Mecca.
Drawn by MacRoberts RA. The map image inset was obtained from Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:North_Africa_location_map.svg), CC public domain. The skeletons were adapted from [91] with permission from Medievalista, original copyright 2012, republished under a CC BY license.
Fig 5.
Map of Avenida 5 de Outubro necropolis showing position of graves and Bar graph showing # of individuals per group (inset).
Table 2.
Faunal skeletal material.
Table 3.
Plant material.
Table 4.
Results-Bones.
Fig 6.
Human and fauna δ15N and δ13Ccol.
Squares represent expected range of +1 trophic level (+0–2‰ in δ13Ccol; +3–5‰ in δ15N) increase over mean Bos and Ovicaprid values, respectively.
Fig 7.
Human δ13Ccol and δ13Cap plotted against regression lines [131] indicating main protein and energy sources in diet.
Fig 8.
Human and fauna δ34S and δ13C.
Table 5.
Results-tooth enamel.
Fig 9.
Human 87Sr/86Sr results compared to bioavailable 87Sr/86Sr for Santarém (plant ash samples from this study and [61].
Table 6.
Results-Plant ash.
Table 7.
Ancient DNA results.
Fig 10.
Human (a.) bone collagen (δ13Ccol) vs bone apatite (δ13Cap) and (b.) bone collagen (δ13Ccol) vs tooth enamel (δ13Cen), by grave orientation (plotted against C3 protein regression line [131] indicating main protein and energy sources in diet).
Fig 11.
Isotope results according to grave orientation.
a.)δ13Ccol, b.) δ15N, c.) δ34S, d.) δ13Cen, e.) δ18ODW and f.) 87Sr/86Sr. M1 teeth are indicated by triangles in 9e.
Fig 12.
Human and fauna δ34S from Santarém (this study), Évora [22] and Tomar[19] along with expected regional range [47].
Fig 13.
Human and fauna δ15N and δ13Ccol by sex.
Squares represent expected range of +1 trophic level increase (+0–2‰ in δ13Ccol; +3–5‰ in δ15N) over mean Bos and Ovicaprid values, respectively.
Fig 14.
Human δ18ODW with multi-tooth comparison.
Individuals with values outside of local range and/or of whom multiple teeth were sampled are in colour and labeled. Individuals within local range and with only one tooth sampled are in grey. Solid triangles = M1s, circles = M2s, squares = M3s, cross = PM1 and diamond = PM2. Hollow triangles represent hypothetical M1 values corrected (-1‰ from δ18Oc VPDB) for breastfeeding.
Fig 15.
Human 87Sr/86Sr results by sex compared to bioavailable 87Sr/86Sr for Santarém (plant ash samples from this study and James et al.
2022 [61]).
Fig 16.
Human 87Sr/86Sr and δ18ODW results by sex.
Grey lines indicate the limit of the expected ‘local’ range for the respective isotopes in Santarém. For 87Sr/86Sr, bioavailable range is determined from plant ash samples from this study and James et al. 2022 [61].