Table 1.
List of Pleistocene and modern rodent species from Republic of South Africa (RSA) based on Wilson et al. [2016, 2017].
Taxa are listed in alphabetical order. Published extinct taxa are identified by the symbol † in the table.
Fig 1.
Schematics and nomenclature of rodent cranium (1–10) and mandible (11–20).
1: foramen magnum; 2: tympanic bulla; 3: zygomatic arch; 4: third upper molar (M3); 5: second upper molar (M2); 6: first upper molar (M1); 7: first or anterior palatal foramen; 8: diastema; 9: incisor; 10: second or posterior palatal foramen; 11: incisor; 12: body of mandible; 13: mental foramen; 14: first lower molar (M1); 15: second lower molar (M2); 16: third lower molar (M3); 17: coronoid process; 18: articular surface; 19: condylar process; 20: angular process.
Fig 2.
Two mandibles in ventral view showing a sciurognathous condition (left) and hystricognathous condition (right).
Fig 3.
Three types of zygomasseteric architecture of rodent skulls.
Arrows show the origin and the insertion of the masseter muscle (medial in red, lateral in blue).
Fig 4.
Notched and un-notched left upper incisors in lateral view.
Fig 5.
Three different types of orientation of the upper incisor: Proodont (top), orthodont (middle), opisthodont (bottom).
Fig 6.
Occlusal view of the upper right toothrow to show the masseter knob, circled in red.
Table 2.
Key to the rodent families: Upper jaw.
Table 3.
Key to the rodent families: Lower jaw.
Table 4.
Key to the murid and nesomyid genera: Upper jaw.
Table 5.
Key to the murid and nesomyid genera: Lower jaw.
Fig 7.
Length of lower toothrow (LLTR) and upper toothrow (LUTR) for rodent genera from RSA.
Red dashes represent medians. Numbers under the x-axis represent the number of specimens used for the measurements. The following genera were not included because both LUTR and LLTR are much greater: Pedetes, Thryonomys, and Hystrix (see measurement details in genus accounts).
Fig 8.
Definition of the measurements used in this key for upper toothrow and lower toothrow of typical Murinae (left), Sciuridae (center) and Bathyergidae (right).
LUTR: length of the upper toothrow; WM1: width of the first upper molar; LLTR: length of the lower toothrow; WM1: width of the first lower molar.
Fig 9.
Various dental wear stages of right upper toothrows in the same species Mystromys albicaudatus, ranging from no wear (stage 1, juvenile specimen) to advanced wear with dentine exposed (stage 4, old individual).
Fig 10.
Scanning electron micrograph of a murid first lower molar showing heavy digestion.
Enamel is locally removed, dentine is also affected.
Fig 11.
Typical Murinae, Dendromurinae, and Otomys left lower toothrows and right upper toothrows, with nomenclature of the cusps.
Lower toothrow: alb: labial anteroconid; alc: anterolabial cingulum; alg: lingual anteroconid; hd: hypoconid; md: metaconid; pd: protoconid; pc: posterior cingulum; pl: prelobe; plc: posterolabial cusplet; tma: anteromedian cusp. Upper toothrow: t1: anterostyle; t2: lingual anterocone; t3: labial anterocone; t4: anterostyle; t5: protocone; t6: paracone; t8: pseudohypocone; t9: metacone (modified from Denys et al., 1992).
Fig 12.
Shape and configuration of the right upper M3 of the Muridae and Nesomyidae (after Denys & Michaux [41], reproduced in Monadjem et al. [22]).
1) t3 present, t1 absent, t3 connected to the first row of cusps: Cricetomys, Dendromus, Malacothrix, Petromyscus, Saccostomus, Steatomys = Nesomyidae; 2) t3 present, t1 absent, t3 isolated: Acomys = Deomyinae; 3) t1 present, a distal cusp, t3 absent: some Aethomys, Mastomys, some Micaelamys, Myomyscus, Rattus, Rhabdomys; 4) t1 present, t3 absent, second lobe with 2 fused or distinct distal cusps: some Aethomys, Dasymys, Lemniscomys, some Micaelamys; 5) rather large t1, labial link between first lobe and second lobe: Zelotomys; 6) presence of t1 and tiny t3, trace of median longitudinal link: Grammomys, Thallomys; 7) small molars with t1 and link between first and second lobe, cusps poorly differentiated: Mus.
Fig 13.
Cranium of Acomys subspinosus (DNMN-40988), with a scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 14.
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of A. selousi (DNMNH-2833); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of A. subspinosus (DNMNH-40989).
Fig 15.
Distribution maps.
Table 6.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Acomys from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Fig 16.
Right maxilla alveolar patterns of modern Muridae and Nesomyidae (with the exception of the larger Cricetomys) and Graphiurus from South Africa, with a scale bar of 4 mm.
Alveoli of the molars M2 are indicated in grey. Adapted and modified from [6].
Fig 17.
Right mandible alveolar patterns of modern Muridae and Nesomyidae (with the exception of the larger Cricetomys) and Graphiurus from South Africa, with a scale bar of 4 mm.
Alveoli of the molars M2 are indicated in grey. Adapted and modified from [6].
Fig 18.
Cranium of Desmodillus auricularis (DNMN-39339), with a scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 19.
Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of Desmodillus auricularis (DNMNH-39365).
Fig 20.
Distribution map.
Table 7.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Desmodillus auricularis, sexes combined.
Fig 21.
Cranium of Gerbilliscus afra (DNMN-21640), with a scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 22.
Cheekteeth of Gerbilliscus (Gerbilliscus).
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of G. afra (DNMNH-21634); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of G. brantsii (DNMNH-27755); 3) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of G. leucogaster (DNMNH-44280).
Fig 23.
Distribution maps.
Table 8.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Gerbilliscus (Gerbilliscus) from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Fig 24.
Cranium of Gerbilliscus (Gerbillurus) vallinus (DNMN-21640), with a scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 25.
Cheekteeth of Gerbilliscus (Gerbillurus).
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of G. paeba (DNMNH-32636); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of G. vallinus (DNMNH-32580).
Fig 26.
Distribution maps.
Table 9.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Gerbilliscus (Gerbillurus) from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Fig 27.
Cranium of Aethomys ineptus (DNMNH-4659), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 28.
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of A. chrysophilus (DNMNH-4659); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of A. ineptus (DNMNH-46903).
Fig 29.
Distribution maps.
Table 10.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Aethomys from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Fig 30.
Cranium of D. capensis (DNMNH-26274), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 31.
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of D. capensis (DNMNH-26274); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of D. robertsii (DNMNH-30639).
Fig 32.
Distribution maps.
Table 11.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Dasymys from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Fig 33.
Cranium of Grammomys cometes (DNMNH-7752), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 34.
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of G. cometes (DNMNH-40467); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of G. dolichurus (DNMNH-10403).
Fig 35.
Distribution maps.
Table 12.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Grammomys from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Note that there is a significant size difference between the two species.
Fig 36.
Cranium of Lemniscomys rosalia (IVB-RS3796), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 37.
Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of L. rosalia (DNMNH-29961).
Fig 38.
Distribution map.
Table 13.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Lemniscomys rosalia, sexes and species combined.
Fig 39.
Cranium of Mastomys coucha (DNMNH-45432), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 40.
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of M. coucha (DNMNH-45433); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of M. natalensis (DNMNH-37511).
Fig 41.
Distribution maps.
Table 14.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Mastomys from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Fig 42.
Cranium of Micaelamys namaquensis (IVB-M4883), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 43.
Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of M. namaquensis (MNHN-ZM-MO-1990-323).
Fig 44.
Distribution maps.
Table 15.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Micaelamys namaquensis, sexes and species combined.
Fig 45.
Cranium of Mus indutus (DNMNH-45741), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 46.
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of M. indutus (DNMNH-45737); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of M. musculus (MNHN-ZM-MO-1994-2350).
Fig 47.
Distribution maps.
Table 16.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Mus from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Fig 48.
Cranium of Myomyscus verreauxii (DNMNH-40537), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 49.
Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of M. verreauxii (DNMNH-40537).
Fig 50.
Distribution map.
Table 17.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Myomyscus verreauxii, sexes combined.
Fig 51.
Cranium of Otomys angoniensis (DNMNH-27526), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 52.
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of O. angoniensis (MNHN- ZM-2020-574 BO24); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of O. laminatus (DNMNH-4647); 3) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of O. sloggetti (DNMNH-7781).
Fig 53.
Distribution maps.
Table 18.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Otomys from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Fig 54.
Cranium of Parotomys littledalei (DNMNH-22441), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 55.
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of P. brantsii (DNMNH-22612); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of P. littledalei (DNMNH-22446).
Fig 56.
Distribution maps.
Table 19.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Parotomys from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Fig 57.
Cranium of Rattus rattus (MNHZM-MO-1994-784), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 58.
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of R. norvegicus (MNHN-ZM-MO-1888-382); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of R. rattus (MNHN-ZM-MO-1981-352).
Fig 59.
Distribution maps.
Table 20.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Rattus from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Fig 60.
Cranium of Rhabdomys dilectus (IVB-M-T8x353), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 61.
Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of R. dilectus (upper IVB-T8x336; lower IVB-T8x353).
Fig 62.
Distribution maps.
Table 21.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Rhabdomys from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Fig 63.
Cranium of Thallomys paedulcus (MNHN-ZM-MO-1990-333), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 64.
Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of T. paedulcus (DNMNH-30229).
Fig 65.
Distribution maps.
Table 22.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Thallomys from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Fig 66.
Cranium of Zelotomys woosnami (DNMNH-30229), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 67.
Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of Z. woosnami (upper DNMNH-6413; lower DNMNH-35175).
Fig 68.
Distribution map.
Table 23.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Zelotomys woosnami, sexes combined.
Fig 69.
Cranium of Cricetomys ansorgei (DNMNH-13954), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 70.
Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of C. ansorgei (DNMNH-30736).
Fig 71.
Distribution map.
Table 24.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Cricetomys ansorgei, sexes combined.
Fig 72.
Cranium of Saccostomus campestris (DNMNH-4203), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 73.
Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of S. campestris (DNMNH-4203).
Fig 74.
Distribution map.
Table 25.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Saccostomus campestris, sexes combined.
Fig 75.
Cranium of Dendromus (Poemys) nyikae (DNMNH-34625), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 76.
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of D. mesomelas (DNMNH-2445); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of Dendromus sp. (ESI modern owl pellet collection).
Fig 77.
Distribution map.
Table 26.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Dendromus from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Fig 78.
Cranium of Malacothrix typica (skull-DNMNH 4965; mandible DNMNH-15184), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 79.
Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of M. typica (DNMNH-15184).
Fig 80.
Distribution map.
Table 27.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Malacothrix typica, sexes combined.
Fig 81.
Cranium of Steatomys krebsii (skull DNMNH-3792, mandible skull DNMNH-3790), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 82.
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of S. pratensis (RMCA-96-037-M-5108); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of Steatomys sp. (DNMNH-3458).
Fig 83.
Distribution maps.
Table 28.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Steatomys from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Fig 84.
Cranium of Mystromys albicaudatus (skull DNMNH-5986, mandible DNMNH-8813), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 85.
Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of M. albicaudatus (DNMNH-3666).
Fig 86.
Distribution map.
Table 29.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Mystromys albicaudatus, sexes combined.
Fig 87.
Cranium of Proodontomys cookei (ESI T.N. Pocock microfaunal fossil collection), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 88.
Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of P. cookei (upper ESI, Cooper’s D fossil collection CD1980; lower ESI T.N. Pocock microfaunal fossil collection, EXQRM47). The molar M3 is missing.
Table 30.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Proodontomys cookei, sexes combined.
Fig 89.
Cranium of Petromyscus collinus (DNMNH-38887), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 90.
Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of P. shortridgei (upper DNMNH-23111; lower DNMNH-29253).
Fig 91.
Distribution map.
Table 31.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Petromyscus from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Table 32.
Key to the bathyergid genera: Upper jaw.
Table 33.
Key to the bathyergid genera: Lower jaw.
Fig 92.
Cranium of Bathyergus suillus (skull DNMNH 523; mandible DNMNH-534), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 93.
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of an adult B. janetta (upper DNMNH-543; lower DNMNH-39304); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of a juvenile B. suillus (DNMNH-2162), with molars M3/M3 not erupted yet.
Fig 94.
Distribution maps.
Table 34.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Bathyergus from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Fig 95.
Cranium of Cryptomys hottentotus (DNMNH-13418), with scale bar of 1 cm.
The molars M3 are missing.
Fig 96.
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of an adult C. hottentotus (DNMNH-13033); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of a juvenile C. hottentotus (DNMNH-3418), with molars M3/M3 not erupted yet.
Fig 97.
Distribution map.
Table 35.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Cryptomys hottentotus, sexes combined.
Fig 98.
Cranium of Fukomys damarensis (DNMNH-17303), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 99.
Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of an adult F. damarensis (DNMNH-17304).
Fig 100.
Distribution map.
Table 36.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Fukomys damarensis, sexes combined.
Fig 101.
Cranium of Georychus capensis (DNMNH-9145), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 102.
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of an adult G. capensis (DNNH-9145); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of a juvenile G. capensis (DNMNH-4159), with molars M3/M3 not erupted yet.
Fig 103.
Distribution map.
Table 37.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Georychus capensis, sexes combined.
Fig 104.
Cranium of Pedetes capensis (skull DNMNH-44480, mandible DNMNH-43800), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 105.
Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of P. capensis (DNMNH-44480).
Fig 106.
Distribution map.
Table 38.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Pedetes capensis, sexes combined.
Fig 107.
Cranium of Hystrix africaeaustralis (ESI BPI-4-881), with scale bar of 2 cm.
Fig 108.
Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of H. africaeaustralis (ESI BPI-4-881).
Fig 109.
Distribution map.
Table 39.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Hystrix africaeaustralis, sexes combined.
Fig 110.
Cranium of Thryonomys swinderianus (DNMNH-621), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 111.
Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow T. swinderianus (DNMNH-621).
Fig 112.
Distribution map.
Table 40.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Thryonomys swinderianus, sexes combined.
Fig 113.
Cranium of Petromus typicus (DNMNH-27970), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 114.
Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of P. typicus (DNMNH-27970).
Fig 115.
Distribution map.
Table 41.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Petromus typicus, sexes combined.
Fig 116.
Cranium of Graphiurus murinus (DNMNH-23386), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 117.
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of G. platyops (DNMNH-4360); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of G. ocularis (DNMNH-27470).
Fig 118.
Distribution maps.
Table 42.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Graphiurus from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Fig 119.
Sciurid right upper and left lower molars with nomenclature of the cusps, adapted from Cuenca-Bescós (1988) [86] and Viriot et al., (2011) [87].
Table 43.
Key to the sciurid genera: Upper jaw.
Table 44.
Key to the sciurid genera: Lower jaw.
Fig 120.
Cranium of Geosciurus princeps (DNMNH-8344), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 121.
Craniodental anatomy of Geosciurus.
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of G. inauris (DNMNH-15143); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of G. princeps (DNMNH-6327).
Fig 122.
Distribution maps.
Table 45.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Geosciurus from South Africa, sexes and species combined.
Fig 123.
Cranium of Paraxerus cepapi (skull DNMNH-4363, mandible DNMNH-6322), with scale bar of 1 cm.
Fig 124.
1) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of P. cepapi (DNMNH-4360); 2) Upper (a) and lower (b) right toothrow of P. palliatus (DNMNH-6214).
Fig 125.
Distribution maps.
Table 46.
Dental measurements (in mm) for Paraxerus from South Africa, sexes and species combined.