Fig 1.
Study area and location of the study sites.
Monitoring was performed at 17 sites, located in six different types of urban forests in Seoul, South Korea. The map was generated using QGIS 3.16.16 (http://www.qgis.org/).
Table 1.
Stand structure characteristics of five urban forest types near the Hongneung experimental forest, Seoul.
Values are shown as the mean (n = 4–13) ± standard deviation.
Fig 2.
Seasonal differences in cooling effects of urban forests.
(A, B) Seasonal differences in cooling effects of different types of urban forests. (B) Winter: Dec–Feb; Spring: Mar–May; Summer: Jun–Aug; Autumn: Sep–Nov. (C, D) Seasonal differences in cooling effects of different types of urban forests during day/nighttime. (C) Day: 06:00–19:00; (D) Night: 20:00–05:00.
Fig 3.
Diurnal differences in the cooling effects of urban forests for each season.
(A) Winter: Dec–Feb; (B) Spring: Mar–May; (C) Summer: Jun–Aug; (D) Autumn: Sep–Nov.
Fig 4.
Seasonal differences in day and night cooling effects of three different urban forest types.
(A) Day: 06:00–19:00; (B) Night: 20:00–05:00.
Fig 5.
Cumulative frequency of abnormal temperature occurrences (heat wave and tropical night) at study sites during summer.
Heat wave: daily maximum temperature exceeds 33°C; tropical night: minimum temperature exceeds 25°C after 6 p.m. and before 9 a.m.
Fig 6.
Effect of distance from the city center (gray infrastructure) on seasonal temperature in urban forests.
(A) Winter: Dec–Feb; (B) Spring: Mar–May; (C) Summer: Jun–Aug; (D) Autumn: Sep–Nov.
Table 2.
Formulas for calculating the cooling effect (temperature difference) of urban forests.