Fig 1.
Location map of study are and sites mentioned in the text.
Black circles: TSG sites; Grey circles: probable TSG sites (not surveyed); white squares: TSG-like sites. 5 = Mokrin; 7 = Gradište-Iđoš; 11 = Novo Miloševo 4; 18 = Novo Miloševo; 25 = Bašaid; 27 = Torda 2; 29 = Kumane 3; 34 = Melenci 2; 39 = Turija-Gradište 41 = Banatski Dvor; 46 = Melenci; 50 = Žitište; 52 = Jankov Most; 65 = Dobrica; 73 = Idvor; 76 = Sakule; 84 = Crepaja; 92 = Glogonj; 93 = Kačarevo 2; 95 = Pančevo; 96 = Pančevo 2-Stari Tamiš; 97 = Dolovo; 102 = Mramorak; 103 = Mramorak 2; 104 = Bavanište; 107 = Újkígyós-Örök-dűlő; 108 = Orosháza Nagytatársánc; 109 = Sântana-Cetatea Veche; 110 = Csanádpalota-Foldvar; 111 = Klárafalva-Hajdova; 112 = Kiszombor-"Juhos Miklos tanya = Uj Elet Tsz"; 113 = Pecica in Vii; 114 = Pecica Şanţul Mare; 115 = Rabe-Anka Siget; 116 = Kanjiža-Ribarski Trg; 117 = Sagu Sit A1_1; 118 = Periam-Movila Santului; 119 = Corneşti-Iarcuri; 120 = Carani; 121 = Satchinez-Râtul Popii; 122 = Ostojićevo-Stari Vinogradi; 123 = Biled-Câmpia Arsă; 124 = Budžak-Livade; 125 = Foeni-Gomila Lupului II; 126 = Foeni-Gomila Lupului I; 127 = Foeni-Cimitirul Ortodox; 128 = Cruceni-Modusi Ut; 129 = Jaša Tomić; 130 = Butin; 131 = Mošorin-Feudvar; 132 = Mošorin-Stubarlija; 133 = Vatin-Bela Bara; 134 = Belegiš-Šančine; 135 = Belegiš-Stojića Gumno; 136 = Orešac-Židovar; 137 = Pančevo-Najeva Ciglana; 138 = Karaburma; 139 = Omoljica–Zlatica. See Table 2 for other TSG sites numbered in this figure (Map by Marta Estanqueiro; basemap hillshade derived from ALOS DSM AW3D30, reprinted from https://www.eorcJaxaJp/ALOS/en/dataset/aw3d30/aw3d30_e.htm under a CC BY license, with permission from JAXA -Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, original copyright 2023).
Table 1.
General trends in climate proxy data for the southern Pannonian Plain.
This table is based on data from Demény et al. 2019 and supported by data from Drăguşin et al. 2014. Demeny et al. is based primarily on data from Trio Cave and Dragusin et al. focus on Ascunsă, Poleva, and Ursilor caves. These are located ca. 200 km to the west-north-west and east-north-east of the centre of the TSG network respectively. All conditions in the figure are relative to those of 2000–1900 BC when this timeline begins. As the dating of changes is broadly construed within century blocks, when peaks occur within a block, the following trajectory is opposite to the preceding one, i.e. if preceded by cooling then following the peak, prevailing conditions shifted to warming.
Fig 2.
Relative ceramic chronologies commonly used in the study area (Drawn by Caroline Bruyere).
Fig 3.
Tumuli (Left) MBA (Centre) and LBA (Right) settlements and cemeteries in topographic perspective (Drawn by Marta Estanqueiro and Caroline Bruyére; basemap hillshade reprinted from https://www.eorcJaxaJp/ALOS/en/dataset/aw3d30/aw3d30_e.htm under a CC BY license, with permission from JAXA -Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, original copyright 2023).
Fig 4.
Central area in TSG site of Baranda showing 1) Tumulus, 2) watercourse and 3–5) activity areas aligned with tumulus (Photograph by Barry Molloy).
Table 2.
List of TSG sites documented during the SILT survey project.
Fig 5.
Selection of pottery from ground truthing survey.
Gradište Iđoš = 1, 6, 16; Novi Bečej = 2; Jankov Most 2 = 3, 13; Žitište = 4; Crepaja = 5; Uzdin = 7; Sefkerin = 8; Dobrica = 9, 10; Bavanište 3 = 11, 12; Jankov Most 2 = 13; Bašaid 3 = 14; Melenci 7 = 15; Kumane 2 = 17, 18; Sakule = 19, 23; Jarkovac = 20; Čenta = 21; Kačarevo = 22; Mramorak = 24; Kumane 2 = 25; Novi Bečej 2 = 26; Melenci 4 = 27; Zrenjanin 4 = 28. (Drawn by Dragan Jovanović).
Fig 6.
Test trench 2 showing depth of habitation debris and lack of clear stratigraphy within an activity area at Sakule (Photograph by Barry Molloy).
Fig 7.
TSG site of Kačarevo 2 showing: A) Low-lying land, B) raised sand-plateau, C) enclosure ditch, D) activity areas (Photograph and key by Barry Molloy and Darja Grosman).
Fig 8.
Size and visible features of TSG and TSG-like sites in Banat and east Backa.
All definitions refer to features visible in aerial imagery. Single-enclosure sites have one complete or partially visible ditch outside of activity areas. Multiple-enclosure sites have two or more complete or partially visible ditches. Sites with no visible enclosures refers to detection using remote prospection visibility only and has not been ground truthed. (Map by Marta Estanqueiro and Caroline Bruyere; basemap hillshade derived from ALOS DSM AW3D30, reprinted from https://www.eorcJaxaJp/ALOS/en/dataset/aw3d30/aw3d30_e.htm under a CC BY license, with permission from JAXA -Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, original copyright 2023).
Fig 9.
Outline of a selection of TSG sites showing range of organisational features including ditches and natural watercourses.
(Drawn by Caroline Bruyere).
Fig 10.
1) 5km radius range around TSG sites. 2) Distance-based cumulative distribution functions. For F, G and K functions—black lines: observed values; red lines: theoretical values; gray values range: Monte Carlo envelopes considering 99 simulations. For J function—blue line: theoretical values; black line: Kaplan-Meyer estimate; red line: Hanisch estimate; green line: reduced-sample estimate. (Map and graphs by Marta Estanqueiro; basemap hillshade derived from ALOS DSM AW3D30, reprinted from https://www.eorcJaxaJp/ALOS/en/dataset/aw3d30/aw3d30_e.htm under a CC BY license, with permission from JAXA -Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, original copyright 2023. Graphs plotted using R 4.2.0).
Fig 11.
Aerial image of Mramorak showing water courses, activity areas and site location at base of higher terrace (Photograph and markup by Barry Molloy with thanks to Darja Grosman).
Fig 12.
Pottery from dated contexts at Budžak Livade.
Grave 2: 3, 6; Grave 9: 4, 16; Grave 12: 1; Grave 22: 10, 15; Grave 23; 18; Grave 24: 2, 5; Grave 26: 12; Grave 29: 17; Grave 31: 8,9; Grave 32: 14; Grave 33: 13, Grave 36: 7; Grave 37: 11 (Drawn by Dragan Jovanović).
Fig 13.
Absolute chronology of TSG settlements and cemeteries.
(Figure by Christopher Bronk Ramsey).
Fig 14.
14C phase model for Gradište Iđoš and Budžak Livade (Figure by Christopher Bronk Ramsey).