Fig 1.
Schematic overview of the study.
(a) Flow diagram of patient selection and dataset configuration. (b) Structural diagram of the DL model for LVH classification. Abbreviations: ECG, electrocardiography; LVH, left ventricular hypertrophy.
Fig 2.
(a) Architectural diagram of the CoAt-Mixer. (b) Architectural diagram of the ResNet-CBAM. Abbreviations: ECG, electrocardiography; GeLU, gaussian error linear unit; FNN, feedforward neural network; ReLU, rectified learning unit.
Table 1.
Dataset characteristics.
Fig 3.
Visualization of statistical metrics.
(a) Confusion matrix and statistical metrics for binary classification. (b) ROC curve and AUROC. Abbreviations: LVH, left ventricular hypertrophy; ROC, receiver operating characteristic; AUROC, area under receiver operating characteristics curve.
Fig 4.
Performance of LVH prediction model for gender.
(a) Receiver operating characteristic curve with 95% CI for predicting LVH in entire dataset. (b) Receiver operating characteristic curve with 95% CI for predicting LVH in male dataset. (c) Receiver operating characteristic curve with 95% CI for predicting LVH in female dataset. Abbreviations: AUROC, area under receiver operating characteristics curve; LVH, left ventricular hypertrophy; ECG, electrocardiography; CI, confidence interval.
Table 2.
Performance metrics for classification task with Youden index.
Table 3.
Performance metrics for single-lead electrocardiography (lead I, II excerpt) with Youden index.
Fig 5.
(a, b) Grad-CAM for male with LVH class (≥132 g/m2). The ECGs of male subjects without LVH (<132 g/m2) in panel (a) attracted minimal attention from the model predicting LVH. On the other hand, the model showed strong attention to ECGs with LVH. (c, d) Grad-CAM for female with LVH class (≥109 g/m2). The ECGs of female subjects without LVH (<109 g/m2) in panel (c) attracted minimal attention from the model predicting LVH. On the other hand, the model showed strong attention to ECGs with LVH. Abbreviations: Grad-CAM, gradient-weighted class activation map; ECG, electrocardiography; LVH, left ventricular hypertrophy.
Table 4.
Comparison with previous studies.
Table 5.
Acronym table.