Fig 1.
Neolithic and Bronze age sites (5300 to 1070 cal. BC) with uncharred poppy seeds analysed in this paper.
Early Neolithic Sites (5300–4500 BC): La Draga and Isolino di Varese 1; Middle Neolithic 1 sites (4500–4000 BC): Egolzwil 3; Isolino di Varese 2; Zürich-Kleiner Hafner and Bagnoles 1; Middle Neolithic 2 sites (4000–3300 BC): Zürich-KanSan and Les Bagnoles 2; Late Neolithic sites (3300–2300 BC): Arbon Bleiche 3; Zug-Riedmatt, Zurich-Parkhaus Opéra; Late Bronze Age site: Zug-Sumpf. Native area of wild poppy delimited south of the dashed line. Software: QGIS3.6, © European Union, Copernicus Land Monitoring Service [2016], European Environment Agency (EEA).
Table 1.
List of sites analysed in this paper.
Fig 2.
Boxplots comparing the length, width, cell number and the three first principal components (PC) of the poppy seeds shape from the chronological phases.
EN: Early Neolithic Sites: Draga and Isolino di Varese 1; MN1: Middle Neolithic 1: Egolzwil 3, Isolino di Varese 2; Kleiner Hafner, layer 5; Bagnoles 1, well 250; MN2: Middle Neolithic 2: Zürich KanSan, layer 9, Les Bagnoles 2, well 990–990; LN: Late Neolithic: Arbon Bleiche 3; Zug Riedmatt, Zurich-Parkhaus Opéra, layer 13. LB: Late Bronze Age: the layer of Zug Sumpf. See also Fig 1 and Table 1. Pairwise differences are tested using Wilcoxon rank tests, and stars indicates P<10−3.
Fig 3.
The unrooted tree obtained with hierarchical clustering on the euclidean distance matrix between Fourier coefficients, length, width and number of cells per site.
The colours of the lines represent the period colours seen in the previous figures. Photos by Raül Soteras. For details to the sites see Table 1.
Fig 4.
Box plots comparing the length, width, cell number and the three components of the three first PC scores of the outline shape analysis of the poppy seeds from different regions.
Mediterranean region boxplot includes La Draga and Les Bagnoles 1 and 2; South of the Alps boxplot includes Isolino 1 and Isolino 2, and North of the Alps has all Swiss sites. Pairwise differences are tested using Wilcoxon rank tests, and stars indicate P<10−3.
Fig 5.
Boxplots with the length values per site, the average date in the continuous x-axis and regression lines.
Ordered by a period as in Table 1 with all the sites analysed here, the colours are the same as in the previous regional graphs.
Fig 6.
Assignment of archaeological seeds to modern P. somniferum morphotypes.
(A) LDA 2 trained on the P. somniferum group (P. setigerum, P. somniferum and P. nigrum) using all descriptors. (B) LDA 3 trained on the P. somniferum group (P. setigerum, P. somniferum) using all descriptors. The number of seeds attributed is listed on each represented colour.
Fig 7.
Map of the sites showing the proportion of seeds assigned to P. setigerum (green) and P. somniferum (blue) by LDA3.
(A) Assemblages from the Early Neolithic and Middle Neolithic 1 period (5700–4000 cal. BC). EN: 80) La Draga, 72) Isolino di Varese 1. MN1: 72) Isolino di Varese 2; 205) Egolzwil 3, 209) Zürich Kleiner Hafner layer 5, 252) Bagnoles 1, well 250. (B) Assemblages from the Middle Neolithic 2, Late Neolithic and Bronze Age (4000–800 cal. BC). MN2: 252) Bagnoles 2, well 990–994, 220) Zürich Kansan layer 9; LN: 201 Arbon Bleiche 3, 227) Zug Riedmatt; 246) Zurich-Parkhaus Opéra layer 13 and LBA: 400) Zug Sumpf. (Software: QGIS3.6, © European Union, Copernicus Land Monitoring Service [2016], European Environment Agency (EEA).