Fig 1.
Experimental setup and designs.
A. Side view of the experimental setup. B. The illustration of the four possible targets and the perturbation of CCW visuomotor rotation. When the participant moves their hand to the top-right target (the dashed arrow), the cursor represented by the black circle was rotated 30° CCW to the hand position (the solid arrow). Then the hand gradually rotates clockwise over trials to bring the cursor to land on the target (the grey arrows). C. Eight phases of trials: baseline, initial rotation learning, initial no-vision, initial washout, counter-rotation, second washout, relearning, and second no-vision. The positive angle indicates CCW rotation. The dashed horizontal lines during no-vision phases indicate no visual feedback. The dashed and solid arrows denote the trajectory of hand and cursor movement, respectively. Shaded gray: participants received punishment (P), reward (R), combination of punishment and reward (PR) or random number (C) during initial rotation learning phase.
Fig 2.
Learning data for all the 8 phases for the Control group.
The grey lines denote the perfect hand movement direction to counter the visual perturbation. The dashed lines denote no visual cursor feedback. Positive angle denotes CW direction. Error bars denote SEM.
Fig 3.
Comparison of the learning during the initial rotation learning phase from four different groups.
A) The learning curves during the initial rotation learning phase of the four groups. Inset illustrates the score curves for the three motivational groups. B) Average learning rate, average learning extent, and average hand movement direction of the whole learning cycles of each group. Positive angle denotes CW direction. Error bars denote SEM. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.
Fig 4.
Comparison of the learning during the counter-rotation phase for the four groups.
A) The learning curves in the counter rotation phase of the four groups. B) Average learning rate, average learning extent, and average hand movement direction of the whole learning cycles of each group. Note the opposite number of participants’ actual hand movement direction is calculated here. Positive angle denotes CW direction. Error bars denote SEM. *p < 0.05.
Fig 5.
Comparison of the learning during the relearning phase from the four groups.
A) The learning curves in the relearning phase of the four groups. B) Average learning rate, average learning extent, and average hand movement direction of the whole learning cycles for each group. Positive angle denotes CW direction. Error bars denote SEM.