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Fig 1.

Flowchart of this research work.

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Fig 1 Expand

Fig 2.

Schematic of the experimental apparatus.

(a) Measuring circuit. (b) Experimental apparatus.

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Fig 2 Expand

Fig 3.

Schematic of the hydraulic cylinder system and its key dimensions.

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Table 1.

Main instruments used in the experimental setup.

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Table 1 Expand

Table 2.

Key design parameters of the prototype.

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Table 2 Expand

Table 3.

Parameters of the O-ring.

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Table 3 Expand

Fig 4.

Steady-state friction forces recorded with O-rings of different hardness during reciprocating movements with different frequencies.

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Fig 5.

Steady-state friction force with O-ring grooves of different inner diameters under different frequency conditions.

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Fig 5 Expand

Fig 6.

Example data of dynamic friction measurement.

(a) Displacement signal. (b) Dynamic friction signal.

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Fig 7.

Dynamic friction forces of O-rings with different hardness values vs. piston displacements at different reciprocating frequencies.

(a) 60SH.A. (b) 70SH.A. (c) 90SH.A.

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Fig 8.

Dynamic friction force with O-rings of different hardness values vs. piston displacement at 4.0Hz reciprocating frequency.

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Fig 8 Expand

Fig 9.

Dynamic friction forces recorded for O-rings with different hardness values under different maximum displacement conditions at 2.0Hz reciprocating frequency.

(a) 60SH.A. (b) 70SH.A. (c) 90SH.A.

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Fig 9 Expand

Fig 10.

Dynamic friction force with different O-ring groove inner diameters vs. piston displacement at different reciprocating frequencies.

(a) d = 34.45mm. (b) d = 34.10mm. (c) d = 33.75mm.

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Fig 10 Expand

Fig 11.

Dynamic friction force with different O-ring groove inner diameters vs. piston displacement at 4.0Hz reciprocating frequency.

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Fig 11 Expand

Fig 12.

Dynamic friction force with different O-ring groove inner diameters under different maximum piston displacements at 2.0Hz reciprocating frequency.

(a) d = 34.45mm. (b) d = 34.10mm. (c) d = 33.75mm.

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Fig 12 Expand