Fig 1.
Debris throwing by Octopus tetricus in the wild: Panel A—Octopus (left) projects silt and kelp through the water (from video by Peter Godfrey-Smith); B–an octopus (right) is hit by a cloud of silt projected through the water by a throwing octopus (left; see SI for video of this event); C, D The mechanics of throwing behavior, C–shells, silt, algae or some mixture is held in the arms preparatory to the throw, mantle is inflated preparatory to ventilation during the throw, siphon at this stage may still be visible in its usual position projecting from the gill slit above the arm crown; D–siphon is brought down over rear arm and under the web and arm crown between the rear arm pair (arms R4 and L4), and water is forcibly expelled through the siphon, with contraction of the mantle, as held debris is released, projecting debris through the water column. Illustrations by Rebecca Gelernter.
Fig 2.
Throwing behavior by Octopus tetricus in the wild: Panel A, B of different materials by context (“mixed I-D” indicates both interaction and den maintenance occurred prior to the throw, see text for details), and C, D thrown with varying vigor. Panel A–the proportion of all throws; B–the proportion of throws that hit another octopus (numbers above columns indicate sample size of throws of that context and material); C–the proportion of throws by context; and D–by body pattern displayed during the throw by the thrower.
Table 1.
Representative reports of animal throwing and related behaviors that assert targeting, with sample sizes and the criteria for targeting used.