Fig 1.
Map showing the Aegean and the eastern Mediterranean with the sites mentioned in the text (Produced by Globalmapper© based on SRTM-30 data with WGS84 projection).
Fig 2.
The Temple, Phase A.
Fig 3.
The Temple, Phase E.
Fig 4.
Room 3, Phase C.
Fig 5.
Room 1, Phase D.
Fig 6.
Subphase D1, Room 5.
Table 1.
Sidon radiocarbon ages (N = 37).
Fig 7.
Screenshot of the new CalPal dialog used in the present studies for construction for all site chronologies (Sidon, Megiddo, Tel Rehov, Tel Tayinat).
The new graphic technology is illustrated here for the previously published Sindos data set [6]. For purposes of quality control, the construction of site chronologies is performed in parallel to automated 14C-offset analysis.
Fig 8.
14C-data for the 5259 BC Miyake [19] measured on single tree rings of Siberian Larch (lila) and Alpine Larch (blue) compared to IntCal20 sets (green).
The graph illustrates how difficult it can be to recognise Miyake events. Despite large amplitude (~ 100 BP), the excess 14C is rapidly (within ~20 yrs) removed from the atmosphere. In consequence, the 5259 BC Miyake is hidden from the view of decadel/bidecadel IntCal20 tree-ring data. For clarity the IntCal20 data (from American and European trees) are shown without calendric scale error bars.
Fig 9.
Fig.X3 GaussWM-chronology for Tel Tayinat, based on the same 14C-data (N = 50) as published by [28], and using an equivalent archaeological age-model.
Table 2.
14C-offset results.
Fig 10.
Overview (dispersion diagram) of radiocarbon ages from Sidon (N = 37, Table 1) showing the individual 14C-ages as calibrated crossbars with identification numbers (ID1-37).
Also shown are the 14C-histogram and the summed calibrated 14C-age probability distribution (SPD) of the total data. Calibrated median values of the single 14C ages are shown in barcode representation for total data on the calendric timescale (small vertical lines underlying the SPD envelope). In the centre of the graph the data is re-arranged according to Sidon-rooms (Room 1,1/3, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10). When interpreting such diagrams it important to note that barcode ages (defined as central values of 95%-confidence intervals) are only useful for overview purposes, due to the folding properties of the 14C age calibration curve and related age-distortion (centennial-scale) of calendric ages and probability amplitudes.
Fig 11.
Stratigraphic integrity of Sidon data (Table 1), evaluated by SPD-sequencing.
(Upper Graph): The SPDs of each Sidon Phase (A,B,C,D,E,I) are arranged according to their known stratigraphic sequence, from oldest to youngest. The lowest SPD is for Phase A (N = 2 dates), the uppermost SPD is for Phase I (N = 4 dates). The known SPD-order is used to derive a specific SPD-amplitude that is valid for the SPDs of all phases, and which can be used to automatically sort the SPDs. All SPDs are assigned a common max amplitude (p = 100%). Then there also exists a common amplitude of p = 50%, that can be measured on the leading SPD-signal edge, that we can use for automated sorting (not shown). The SPD-specific numeric sort ages are shown on the right. (Lower Graph): In order to achieve a correctly sorted SPD-sequence, alternatively, the same sorting procedure can be applied to the outlier-filtered SPDs. For screening purposes prior to the application of more advanced (but time-consuming) GaussWM modelling procedures, it is (optionally) possible to replace the leading-edge seriation by an algorithm based on trailing-edge or interquartile seriation.
Fig 12.
Identification of outliers and extreme 14C-ages based on barcode representation of Sidon data (Table 1).
In this graph all Sidon Phases (A-K) are included, with allowance for not-dated Phases F, G, and H. (Upper): 14C-histogram and calibrated probability distribution of data, numbered according to Table 1, shown in context with IntCal20 (green line). (Lower): the same data, but showing barcodes grouped according to Sidon Phase (A-K), with Phases arranged vertically according to their known stratigraphic sequence. Note, empty vertical spaces are assigned to not-dated Phases F, G, and H. This procedure, in combination with the visual setting of oblique error-lines (dashed lines drawn at ± 50yrs (~1σ) and ± 100yrs (~2σ)), facilitates first-order identification of stratigraphic outliers (sample ID: Table 1). Based on this monitoring, 14C-ages on samples with ID 7, 30, 35, 37 should be treated as outliers. Further outliers (better: extreme 14C-ages with expected modelling deviations larger than 100 calyrs) are for samples with ID 16, 20, 32, and 12. This remains to be confirmed by explicit modelling. Finally, although to smaller extent, the 14C-ages on samples with ID 2, 15, 17, 21, and 29 are also forecasted to show modelling deviations, in this case on the level of ~ 50 yrs. Of special interest is the recognition that, for the youngest Phases I, J, and K, apparently only three of the six dates (i.e. 50%) are likely to be in correct stratigraphic order, and all three of these dates are from Phase I. On the older side of the stratigraphy, with ID7 from Phase A clearly too young, there is only one remaining date for each of two earliest Phases A and B. This we judge is an insufficient number for application of advanced statistical studies.
Fig 13.
Archaeological uniform phase-length model for Sidon phases C-D, based on N = 20 stratigraphically filtered 14C-dates (i.e.with outliers removed from Table 1 according to the outlier analysis, Fig 12.
The 14C-ages are arranged in the order of the stratigraphic layers from which the samples were taken, with layer-internal randomisation. The applied GaussWM-modelling is based on 1000 runs (run-time 24 hrs) with assumed Gaussian Monte Carlo modelling errors of ± 10 yrs for sample positions, ± 10 BP for calibration curve rebuilding, and application of a non-central chi-squared metric with non-centrality parameter λ = 10. Note that the specific sample-sequence shown as age-model in Fig 12 represents only one of several million alternative sequences, all of which contribute equally to the finally calculated model errors.
Fig 14.
Application of the probability gauge method to Sidon Phase I dates, used to estimate the Begin and End of the phase.
The available N = 5 dates are shown as single-age crossbars (± 68% confidence), with sample ID according to Table 1. The red-coloured rectangle projected onto the IntCal20 curve shows the visually optimised central area of 2D-dating probability. The underlying gauge value of g = 50% was chosen in order to enclose simultaneously as much central area of the uncalibrated (14C-scale) and calibrated (calendric scale) distributions as possible. The result is that Sidon Phase I begins at 1000 ± 40 calBC and ends at 900 ± 40 calBC (rounded ages, with dating errors estimated from underlying single dates (cf. Table 1).
Fig 15.
Phoenician Bichrome Ware: S/116259/8308.
Fig 16.
Phoenician Bichrome Ware: S/109470/8324.
Fig 17.
Phoenician Bichrome Ware: S/109455/8324.
Fig 18.
Phoenician Bichrome Ware: S/110604/8322.
Fig 19.
Phoenician Bichrome Ware: S/110605/8322.
Fig 20.
Phoenician Bichrome Ware: S/91639/1008.
Fig 21.
Phoenician Monochrome Ware S/S/131497/8348.
Fig 22.
Trefoil mouth jug S/8268/4429.
Fig 23.
Platter bowl S/8269/4429+4430 adorned with red slip.
Fig 24.
Platter bowl S/8267/4429 painted with a horizontal red painted band on the inner surface under the rim.
Fig 25.
Strainer spouted jug S/8291/4429.
Fig 26.
Jug with a ridge on the neck S/8152/4429.
Fig 27.
Jug with handle from rim to shoulder S/8154/4429.
Fig 28.
Fragment of a Greek zigzag bowl from Sidon phase D dating to Early Geometric / Subprotogeometric II.
Fig 29.
Fragment of a Greek shallow bowl from Sidon phase F dating to the Middle Geometric I / Subprotogeometric IIIA.
Fig 30.
Fragments of Euboean (NAA) pendent semicircle skyphoi from Sidon phase I dating to Middle Geometric II / Subprotogeometric IIIB.
Fig 31.
Fragments of Greek (NAA) monochrome skyphoi from Sidon phase I dating to Middle Geometric II / Subprotogeometric IIIB.
Fig 32.
Fragment of Euboean bird skyphos from Sidon phase K dating to Late Geometric I.
Fig 33.
Euboean (NAA) crater from Sidon dating to Late Geometric I.
Fig 34.
GaussWM-derived chronology for Megiddo based on the same 14C-data (N = 50) and archaeological age-model as published by [40].
Fig 35.
GaussWM-chronology for Tel Rehov based on the same 14C-data (N = 50) as published by [50], and using an equivalent archaeological age-model.
Fig 36.
Comparison of the 14C-chronologies for the study sites, based on GaussWM.
Fig 37.
Rim fragment of a shallow Plain-White bowl (125693/4510).
Fig 38.
Rim fragment of a shallow Plain-White bowl (125697/4510).
Fig 39.
Body and spout fragment of a White Painted I-II strainer jug (125772).
Fig 40.
Bottom fragment of a shallow bowl, White Painted II (121646/4469).
Fig 41.
Rim and handle fragment of a White Painted I deep bowl (118109+ 118110).
Fig 42.
Body sherds of a juglet, Black Slip (S/120286/4445).
Fig 43.
Rim fragment of a shallow bowl White Painted II (120572/4446).
Fig 44.
Rim fragment of a shallow bowl, White Painted IV (122409/4483).
Fig 45.
Two body sherds of a deep bowl, White Painted III (97731/97732/9116).
Fig 46.
Rim and body fragment of an amphora, White Painted IV (109478+109480/8324).
Fig 47.
Amphora rims from Room 6: 1. S/125699/4510; 2. S/123892/4496; 3. S/120575/4446.
Fig 48.
Rim of meat jar S/120631/4473 from Room 6.
Fig 49.
Large Storage jar with four handles, S/8098/8469, Nile G6a, white slip.