Fig 1.
Conceptual framework for analyzing social-ecological systems and human-wildlife interactions (adapted from [15]).
Fig 2.
The location of the study area: a) the three districts of Kilombero, Mvomero and Morogoro Rural, and the nearby protected areas; b) The study villages in each of the districts. (The basemap and inserts in Fig 2(a) are similar but not identical to those in United States Geological Survey (USGS) (TNM Download v2 (nationalmap.gov)) and are used here for illustrative purposes only).
Table 1.
The change in feelings towards elephants expressed by the respondents.
Table 2.
Variables influencing variation in attitude in Kilombero, Mvomero and Morogoro Rural districts.
Table 3.
Multinomial logistic regression results for local communities tolerance towards elephants.
Fig 3.
Social-ecological determinants of human-elephant relationship.
SS = Social System and ES = Ecological System. SS and ES and their associated numbers correspond to SS and ES components in the Social Ecological System framework in Fig 1 above.
Fig 4.
Land use/land cover mapping for the study area for a) 1994 and b) 2020 shown in seven distinct categories and locations for human-elephant conflicts in Kilombero and Mvomero districts.