Fig 1.
A map of Central Asia derived by the authors using data for annual precipitation (Worldclim [14]), surface water [15], and rivers (Hydrosheds [16]). The study region (encircled with black line) is shown with the region of Caspian catchment (enclosed with red line). Key mountain ranges, deserts, and bodies of water are labeled. The location of Amir Timur Cave that hosted stalagmite S-12-4 analyzed in this study is shown as red circle.
Fig 2.
Climate variables and evidence of hominin occupation in Central Asia through time.
Global oxygen isotope records with numbered MIS interglacials (CENOGRID dataset) [29], the Tajik loess record [26], and relative Caspian Sea level variation [19]. Blue shading indicates wet intervals in the Tajik loess record and pink shading indicates intervals of Caspian outflow into the Black Sea [19]. All known hominin taxa from Central Asia during the Pleistocene (Homo erectus [H.e.], Denisovans, Homo neanderthalensis [H.n.], Homo sapiens [H.s.]) are displayed alongside the suggested chronology for Lower (green) and Middle (red) Paleolithic assemblages. Symbols indicate the basis of age estimations and assemblages without symbol represent dates previously proposed in the literature but are unverified/not tested by dating methods.
Fig 3.
Distribution of Lower Paleolithic (top), Middle Paleolithic (middle) and Upper Paleolithic (bottom) finds. Assemblages that contain multiple paleolithic industries are color-coded accordingly (green = LP, red = MP, orange = UP) and displayed on all applicable maps. Numbers correspond to the sites listed in S1 Table. Surface water [15], and rivers (Hydrosheds [16]) are displayed. Basemap is Natural Earth 2 data.
Fig 4.
Distribution of acheulean-like bifaces.
Elevation data for Central Asia (SRTMV4 [114]) with bodies of water [15], rivers (Hydrosheds [16]) and the boundaries of Central Asia outlined. Areas where bifaces have been recovered are marked (orange triangle). Numbers correspond to the sites listed in S1 Table.
Fig 5.
Time series of Mg/Ca, δ13C and δ18O proxies for stalagmite S-12-4.
A: An overview of stalagmite S-12-4 with Mg/Ca, δ13C, δ18O, and greyscale value profiles. Mg/Ca, δ13C and δ18O correlate positively, while greyscale values partly co-vary, albeit with increased individuality, especially in the lower half of the stalagmite. B: Final proxy time series of S-12-4, based on layer counting linked to the median U/Th age. Shaded fillings are cut off at the median value of the respective proxy.
Fig 6.
Models of the Bakunian high stand and Atelian low stand water supply calculated by the authors, with paleolithic finds (per [19]).
Lower Paleolithic finds are plotted on the map of the Bakunian high stand and Upper Paleolithic finds are plotted on the map of the Atelian low stand. The location of the Amir Timur speleothem is also plotted (red target). Basemap is Natural Earth 2 data.