Fig 1.
Location of sites mentioned in the text and in Table 1.
CdG = Castel di Guido, MG = Malagrotta, PdC = Polledrara di Cecanibbio, CdP = Casal de’ Pazzi, FR = Fontana Ranuccio, LD = Lademagne. The Roman Magmatic Province [4, 5] is formed by large volcanic complexes, namely the Colli Albani, the Monti Sabatini, the Vico volcano and the Monti Volsini to the north (the last not shown on this map). Drawing by G. Boschian. Figure sources: Roman Magmatic Province outcrops simplified from Carta geologica informatizzata Regione Lazio 1: 25000, doi.org/10.13140/2.1.2667.8080 (available under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 - CC BY 4.0) with updates from GB fieldwork. Topographic background from USGS Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (Courtesy of NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory Caltech; credit line requested by JPL policy).
Table 1.
Middle pleistocene latium sites with bone tools.
Unretouched bone flakes are included.
Fig 2.
Plan of the castel di Guido excavation area with distribution of the faunal remains and contour map of the channel.
Stages of abrasion are the same as those used in lithic analysis: 0 = fresh; 1 = slightly abraded; 2 = abraded; 3 = very abraded. The total N of specimens is 4037. Contour lines are at 20 cm. intervals. From [20: Fig 48].
Fig 3.
Top: note the tusks and small objects at slightly different elevation. Bottom: two elephant neural spines and a vertebra of a smaller animal washed up against a tusk.
Fig 4.
Some elements were in anatomical association. Top: two tusks clearly belonging to the same animal. Bottom: elephant pelvis with the two hip bones in association.
Fig 5.
Dispersed elements. The microfault (bottom image) is probably due to postdepositional sediment pressure or a small earthquake.
Table 2.
40Ar/39Ar dates.
Fig 6.
Excavation profile with location of the two dated samples CdG1 and CdG2.
The red line indicates the paleosurface. Drawing by G. Boschian.
Table 3.
Index of confidence*.
Table 4.
Castel di Guido bone tool specimens with index of confidence 2 or 3.
Fig 7.
Castel di Guido, bifaces made on diaphysis fragments.
Catalogue numbers (following the letter order) 1014, 5087, 5089, 4836, 5227, 2463. A and F are only slightly abraded, B-E have abraded and fresh removals on the same face, suggesting reuse (S4 Table in S1 File). Scale bar 5 cm.
Fig 8.
(A) biface; (B-F) partial bifaces. Catalogue numbers 1561, 5898, 7569, TM 10433, 324, 5146. Note that the partial bifaces B and E are abraded on one face and fresh or only slightly abraded on the other. This suggests that some large pieces were partly buried in sand and the exposed face (sometimes- but not always- indicated by a red or green dot assigned at excavation) was abraded in situ by the flow of sandy water. See similar occurrences in layer m of Torre in Pietra [34: p. 18]. Scale bar 5 cm.
Fig 9.
Partial bifaces-knives. (A-C) are asymmetrical large tools bifacially flaked on one side with a steep opposite side, either natural (as on these pieces) or blunted by retouch. This type of tools is found in the Middle Pleistocene Acheulian stone tools of East Africa where they are called “knives” [35, 36]. To our knowledge, these forms were not previously documented in the European Acheulian. (D) is unifacially flaked with a natural steep back. Catalogue numbers 4735, 2998, 3566, x281. Scale bar 5 cm.
Fig 10.
Pointed tools, abraded or slightly abraded (A-H). Catalogue numbers 819, 4093, 5817, 4058, 6858, 869, 3508, 2370. B and C can be classed as pointed wedges.
Fig 11.
Intermediate tools (also called wedges). These tools, made on diaphysis fragments, show battering and crushing on the proximal end with some removal scars; the distal end has a broadly convex shape (A-D) or in some cases an end with a pointed morphology (E-G). They might have been used to work wood or to split bone. Catalogue numbers 5462, 4752, 5439, 2385,1294, 5500, 5575. Scale bar 5 cm.
Fig 12.
Castel di Guido, unifaces and pointed tools.
(A-C) unifaces with a side scraper edge, catalogue numbers 4066, 6164, 4307. (D) pointed wedge (base is battered) catalogue number 666. (E-F) pointed tools on bovid diaphysis fragments, catalogue numbers 326, 2807. (G-H) pointed tools, catalogue numbers 4104, 5452.
Fig 13.
(A-C) Centripetal core with one heavily battered edge (arrow in C) and one edge (arrow in A) rounded and polished. (D, E) Intermediate piece with a lateral scraper edge. Both could be classed as tools with multiple uses.
Fig 14.
Right radius of Bos primigenius with polished tip, catalogue number 5285. Compare to Schöningen 12 II-4c, equid radius with polished tip [17].
Fig 15.
Retouched flakes (A, B, E), small tools on flakes (C, D) and broken tools (F, G). C is a bec on flake, D is a denticulate on flake. F has a stepped fracture at its base. The base of G is an irregular fracture and a percussion point in the center, probable cause of the break. This is most likely an intentional break. Catalogue numbers 765, 389, 2329, 4482, 1396, 2440, 5286. Scale 5 cm.
Table 5.
Counts of stone large tool types (≥ 6 cm in maximum dimension)*.
Fig 16.
Bifaces of flint (A, B, E) and chert (C, D). Catalogue numbers 6630, 6771, 6643, 3413, 1315. E might be considered as passing to partial biface but the lower face shows bifacial scars over half of the perimeter. A has double patina. Scale bar 5 cm.
Fig 17.
Partial bifaces (A, B, C) and unifaces (D, E). A, B, E of chert, C and D of siltstone. Catalogue numbers 2398, 1305, 7487, 592, 3188. Scale bar 5 cm.
Fig 18.
A, B, E of chert, C, D of flint; (A, B, C) pointed tools; (D) retouched notch; (E) scraper edge on core. Catalogue numbers 3265, 803, 2915, 728, 3208. Scale bar 5 cm.
Fig 19.
Cores, A and C of flint, B of chert. All three have one debitage surface, A is centripetal, B and C are unidirectional. Catalogue numbers 1529, 165, 3162. Scale bar 5 cm.
Fig 20.
Cores, A of flint, B and C of chert. A is centripetal non-Levallois, B is multidirectional and C is unidirectional. Catalogue numbers 227, 2065, 3474. Scale bar of A is 1 cm, of B and C is 5 cm.
Fig 21.
Cores A-F are all of flint and all exhausted. Catalogue numbers 5158, 222, 3296,4394,7466,1991. G is of flint and is unidirectional. H has double patina indicating reuse. I is bidirectional but the lower removals are clearly failed due to the fissured and irregular texture of the raw material. Catalogue numbers of G-I are 1491, 2866, 2521. Scale bar 1 cm.
Table 6.
Counts of stone small tools by major categories (< 6 cm).
Table 7.
Blanks of small tools*.