Fig 1.
Per capita welfare benefits (cash and in-kind) by age and SES in the European Union.
Source: Authors’ calculation. Notes: Calculated from a pooled sample of over 400,000 individuals from 22 EU countries. National values are re-scaled based on the average labor income of 30-49-year-olds. The image is rotated.
Fig 2.
Per capita taxes and contributions financing welfare benefits by age and SES in the European Union.
Sources and notes as in Fig 1.
Fig 3.
Per capita net welfare benefits (benefits minus taxes) by age and SES in the European Union.
Sources and notes as in Fig 1.
Fig 4.
Average marginal effects of socio-economic status and age groups in the benefits, taxes, and net benefits models (reference category, age = 1 (youngest), SES = 1 (lowest)).
Note: Based on regression models including only age and SES dummies and their interaction as explanatory variables.
Table 1.
Sum of absolute values, range, and standard deviation of the average marginal effects of age and SES in models of benefits, taxes, and net benefits.
Table 2.
Contribution to the explained variance by age and SES for benefits, taxes, and net benefits (Shapley-value decomposition of the R2).