Fig 1.
Morphology of Sonchus arvensis L. callus on media with 1 mg/L 2,4-D + 0.5 mg/L BAP.
A, 10 days. B, 17 days. C, 24 days. D, 31 days. ex. explant. fc. friable callus. cc. compact callus. Bar = 1 cm.
Table 1.
Efficiency and formation time of Sonchus arvensis L. callus induction.
Fig 2.
Morphology of Sonchus arvensis L. callus on dolomite media.
A, control (1 mg/L 2,4-D + 0.5 mg/L BAP). B, 50 mg/L dolomite. C, 75 mg/L dolomite. D, 100 mg/L dolomite. E, 150 mg/L dolomite. F, 200 mg/L dolomite. fc. friable callus. cc. compact callus. Bar = 100 μm.
Table 2.
Degree, texture, and color of Sonchus arvensis L. callus on dolomite media.
Fig 3.
Embryogenic callus of Sonchus arvensis L. on dolomite media.
A, control (1 mg/L 2,4-D + 0.5 mg/L BAP). B, 50 mg/L dolomite. C, 75 mg/L dolomite. D, 100 mg/L dolomite. E, 150 mg/L dolomite. F, 200 mg/L dolomite. SE: somatic embryo.
Fig 4.
Cross-section of Sonchus arvensis L. callus on dolomite media.
A1–A2, control callus from 1 mg/L 2,4-D + 0.5 mg/L BAP (A1: filled with parenchymatous cells, A2: containing somatic embryo in early globular stages/SEEG). B1–B2, callus from 50 mg/L dolomite (B1: filled with parenchymatous cells, B2: containing somatic embryo in globular stages/SEG). C1–C3, callus from 75 mg/L dolomite (C1: filled with parenchymatous cells, C2: secondary metabolites (SM) accumulation in parenchymatous cells, and C3: somatic embryo in hearth stages/SEH).
Fig 5.
Cross-section of Sonchus arvensis L. callus under dolomite treatment.
D1–D3, callus from 100 mg/L dolomite (D1: filled with small parenchymatous cells with thick cell wall and sclerenchymatous cells, D2: containing somatic embryo torpedo stages/SET, and D3: secondary metabolite (SM accumulation in interstitial cell). E1–E2, callus from 150 mg/L dolomite (E1: filled with small parenchyma cells with thick cell wall, E2: containing somatic embryo in transition stages (SETr) from globular to heart stages). F1–F2, callus from 200 mg/L dolomite (F1: filled with small parenchymatous cells with thick cell wall, F2: there were sclerenchymatous cells on the edge of callus).
Table 3.
Comparison of the anatomical characteristics of Sonchus arvensis L. callus on dolomite media.
Table 4.
The fresh and dry weight of Sonchus arvensis L. callus on dolomite media after 21 days cultured.
Fig 6.
Chromatogram of ethanolic extracts of Sonchus arvensis L. callus in different dolomite concentrations.
A, leaves. B, control (1 mg/L 2,4-D + 0.5 mg/L BAP). C, 75 mg/L dolomite. D, 150 mg/L dolomite. 1. Phytol, 2. 2-Pentadecanone, 3. 1,2-dimethyl-3-(1-methyl ethyl) cyclopentane, 4. Methyl beta-D-glucopyranoside, 5. Pelargonic acid, 6. Decanoic acid, 7. Hexadecanoic acid.
Table 5.
Metabolite profiles of Sonchus arvensis L. callus ethanolic extract.
Table 6.
Percentage of inhibition and the IC50 of antiplasmodial activity of Sonchus arvensis L. callus against Plasmodium falciparum strain 3D7.
Fig 7.
TLC chromatogram of Sonchus arvensis L. callus extract.
I, after running with solvent (4 n-hexane: ethyl acetate). II, UV 254 nm. III, UV 366 nm. IV, after being sprayed with anisaldehyde sulfuric acid (the purple spot is terpenoid). 1, leaf methanolic extract. 2, leaf ethanolic extract. 3, control (1 mg/L 2,4-D + 0.5 mg/L BAP ethanolic extract). 4, 75 mg/L dolomite ethanolic extract. 5, 150 mg/L dolomite ethanolic extract. 6, 200 mg/L dolomite ethanolic extract.