Table 1.
Categorisation process for selection of studies for review.
Fig 1.
PRISMA diagram of literature search and study selection.
Table 2.
Summary of the main characteristics of the included studies.
Table 3.
Main concepts and approaches used in COI studies.
Fig 2.
Allocation of direct costs in COI studies of back pain.
Legend: The figure illustrates the allocation of direct costs in studies that reported on all three major costs components (inpatient, outpatient, and pharmaceutical costs) of direct costs.
Fig 3.
Allocation of indirect costs in COI studies of back pain.
Legend: The figure illustrates the allocation of indirect costs in studies that reported on at least two of the three major costs components (absenteeism, presenteeism, and early retirement costs) of indirect costs.
Table 4.
National estimates of direct, indirect, and total costs of back pain.