Table 1.
Description details of interviewed vinegrowers (mean value).
Fig 1.
System boundary of LCA and CBA.
LCA and CBA represent life cycle assessment and cost benefit analysis, respectively.
Table 2.
Inputs and outputs per ha of grape production in Hebei.
Table 3.
Impact assessment results per ton / ha of grape production.
Table 4.
Cost and benefit of grape production (CNY/t).
Table 5.
Efficiency scores of cooperatives and smallholder farmers.
Table 6.
Average reduction in operational inputs and environmental impacts (%).
Table 7.
Economic savings for different operational inputs (CNY/ha).
Fig 2.
Contributions of different inputs (in %) to WI (per 1 ton grape).
IOF, FOC and SF represent investor-owned firm-led cooperatives, farmer-owned cooperatives and smallholder farmers, respectively. WI represents weighting index.
Fig 3.
Contributions of different inputs (in %) to environmental impact categories (per 1 ton grape).
IOF, FOC and SF represent investor-owned firm-led cooperatives, farmer-owned cooperatives and smallholder farmers, respectively.
Fig 4.
Structure of economic and environmental costs (per 1 ton grape).
Fixed cost consists of vineyard and farm machinery cost, operational cost consists of pesticide, organic and chemical fertilizer, labor, plastic film, water and energy cost.
Fig 5.
Contributions of different inputs (in %) to the total environmental cost (per 1 ton grape).
Fieldwork consists of energy and resource use at on-farm stage (i.e. diesel, electricity and irrigation water).
Table 8.
Contributions of input to environmental cost (CNY/t).
Table 9.
Main contributors to environmental impact categories of previous studies.