Fig 1.
Geographical and archaeological setting of Revadim site.
a) Site location and excavation areas of late Acheulean Revadim; b) A handaxe from Area C Layer 3; c) Chopping tools from Area C; d) Area C, view to the northeast; e) Close-up of Layer C3.
Fig 2.
Post-depositional surface alteration identified in Area C Layer 3.
a) A chopping tool with yellowish patination visible on the entire surface (red circle); b) Uniform and diffused sheen observed at high magnification on the surface of an artifact.
Table 1.
List of the chopping tools used during the experimental activities of bone breakage with the main morphological and experimental variables.
Fig 3.
Representative images of controlled experiments carried out in order to create a reference collection.
a) Pebbles of different sizes used to manufacture the experimental replicas; b) Chopping replica manufacturing process with a hard hammer; c) Experimental bone breaking activity (dehydrated pig bone without periosteum); d) Experimental bone breaking activity (dry sheep bone); e) Experimental bone breaking activity (fresh roe deer bone without periosteum); f) Experimental bone breaking activity (fresh cow bone without periosteum); g) Bone marrow accessed from a complete fracture; h) Bone marrow accessed from a large cut or fissure; i) Experimental bone breaking activity (dehydrated pig bone with periosteum).
Fig 4.
Classification of chopping tools from Area C Layer 3.
a) Type 1; b) Type 2; c) Type 3; d) Type 4.
Fig 5.
Data analysis of chopping tools.
a) Frequencies of chopping tools by type and degree of flint homogeneity (1 = homogenous; 2 = fairly homogenous; 3 = heterogenous); b) Frequencies of chopping tools by type and flint texture (1 = fine; 2 = medium; 3 = coarse; 1–2 = fine to medium; 1–3 = fine to coarse; 2–3 = medium to coarse); c) Types of chopping tools by average weight (in grams); d) Types of chopping tools by average length (in cm).
Table 2.
List of the archaeological chopping tools interpreted as used and related use-wear details.
Fig 6.
Overview of the edge damage observed on the archaeological chopping tools.
a) Specimen #8 AS15c 71.07–71.05; b) Specimen #23 AP13c 71.14–71.13; c) Specimen #30 AS16d 71.27–71.23 (SEM image); d) Specimen #28 AQ16b 71.08–71.03; e) Specimen #8 AS15c 71.07–71.05; f) Specimen #30 AS16d 71.27–71.23.
Fig 7.
Archaeological chopping tool with related use-wear results.
a) Specimen #10 AR15d 71.18–71.17; b) Edge damage; c) Bone-like polish observed on the functional edge. Dotted line indicates the functional area.
Fig 8.
Archaeological chopping tool/core with related use-wear results.
a) Specimen #3 AS15c 71.14–71.12; b) Edge damage c) Edge damage formed on top of a pointed area along the functional edge as a result of a battering activity on a hard material; d) Prehension wear. Dotted lines and black squares indicate the functional area, blue square indicates the prehensile area.
Fig 9.
Archaeological micro-residues observed on the chopping tools.
a) Whitish amorphous patches on specimen #4 AS16c 71.04–71.02; b) Whitish-yellowish amorphous patches on specimen #9 AR16d 71.05–71.07; c) Whitish amorphous patches with greasy yellowish inclusion on specimen #14 AW14a 71.11–71.09; d) Smeared whitish amorphous patches on specimen #3 AS15c 71.14–71.12; e) Crystalline white residues consistent with bony tissues entrapped in the use-edge scars on specimen #3 AS15c 71.14–71.12; f) Accumulation of superimposed bluish fat droplets along the active edge on specimen #3 AS15c 71.14–71.12 (cross-polarized light).
Table 3.
List of the archaeological chopping tools interpreted as used and related residue description and interpretations.
Fig 10.
Morphological and elemental characterization of bone residues.
a) Bone residues on specimen As16c 71.04–71.02; b) SEM micro-graph of the same residue; c) Elemental analysis; d) Bone residue in specimen #9AR16d 71.95–71.07; e) SEM micro-graph of the same residue; f) Elemental analysis. Intensity of the peaks varies according to the amount of residue analyzed. The Ca/P atomic ratio is equal to ~2.1.
Fig 11.
Comparison of micro-FTIR analysis of bone residues.
Micro-FTIR performed on an experimental tool used for processing bone (red spectrum); micro-FTIR performed on the archeological chopping tool #8 AS15c 71.07–05 showing the peak at 913 cm-1 (blue spectrum), micro-FTIR performed on a spot without residues on the chopping tool #8 AS15c 71.07–05 (black spectrum); micro-FTIR performed on pure bone tissues (brown).
Fig 12.
Comparison of micro-FTIR analysis of adipocere residues.
Micro-FTIR performed on a tool few months after have been used for processing hide (red spectrum); micro-FTIR performed on the chopping tool #3 AS15c 71.14–71.12 (blue spectrum); micro-FTIR performed on a spot without residues on the chopping tool #3 AS15c 71.14–71.12 (black spectrum).
Fig 13.
Archaeological chopping tool with related use-wear and residue results.
a) Specimen #2 AP14c 71.13-71-08; b) SEM image of the yellow-brownish and white micro-residues encrusted in the scar along the functional edge and related SEM-EDX spectrum showing chemical composition of fat (area 1) and chemical composition of bone (area 2); c) Close-up of the yellow-brownish micro-residues and comparison with the experimental degraded fatty residues belong to the reference collection (c1); d) Location of the yellow-brownish and white micro-residues inside the scar along the functional edge; e) SEM image showing edge rounding related to the thrusting percussion activity; f) Micro-FTIR spectrum of bone observed in the area of residue (blue). Black spectrum shows a spot without residues. Red dot indicates the area of residue, dotted line and black square indicate the functional area.
Table 4.
List of the archaeological cores interpreted as used and related residue and use-wear interpretations.
Fig 14.
Archaeological core with related use-wear and residue results.
a) Specimen #23 AQ15b 71.14–71.10; b) Edge damage; c) Group of fibers adhering along the utilized edge (red dot and square); d-e) Large group of fibers encrusted in a whitish mass of residue and close-up view of the twisted brownish long fiber; f) SEM-EDX spectra of a fiber and of the whitish residues with related SEM topographical view; g) Micro-FTIR spectrum showing the high absorption of calcium carbonate measured on the whitish residues (red) and micro-residue of bone detected along the edge and close to the area of fibers (blue and green). Black spectrum shows a spot without residues. Red and green dots show the location of fibers, dotted line indicates the functional area.
Table 5.
Interpret function and material of chopping tools.