Fig 1.
The blackening of Detroit (1970, 1990, and 2010).
Map generated by authors, using public domain data from [38, 39].
Fig 2.
Urban decline in the lower east side Detroit neighborhoods, with images showing the neighborhoods, residences, and vacated and open stores.
Fig 3.
The store types and the three shopping zones– 1) the case study neighborhoods, 2) the City of Detroit, and 3) the Detroit suburbs.
Only stores identified by survey respondents are used in this study (as shown in the map). Map generated by authors, using public domain data from [39] under a CC BY license.
Table 1.
Agent groups for different combinations of age and income.
Group size in parentheses. Total sample N = 188.
Fig 4.
Stores identified by respondents for each agent group and their location in relation to the case study neighborhoods, the City of Detroit, and the suburbs.
See Table 1 for group names. Map generated by authors, using public domain data from [39] under a CC BY license.
Fig 5.
Household agent grocery shopping decision-making.
Fig 6.
Sociodemographic subgroups and trips by mode by distance.
See Table 1 for group names.
Fig 7.
Distribution of store visits and percent of motorized trips.
The larger the circle for a store, the more weekly visits made to that store. Results were normalized across all groups. See Table 1 for group names.
Fig 8.
Average shopping trips per week among different sociodemographic groups and the three distinct shopping zones.
For group names, see Table 1.