Fig 1.
(A) The distribution of Early Neolithic ‘V’ based bone spoons at 52 sites in South East Europe (26, 29): 1.Tiszaug–Tópart; 2. Tiszaug; 3. Vata Tanya; 4. Sarvas; 5. Endröd; 6. Ecsegfalva; 7. Zsoldos Tanya; 8. Maroslele Pana; 9. Ludaš_Budžak; 10. Nosa Győngypart; 11. Srpski Krstur; 12. Donja Branjevina; 13. Mužlja; 14. Golokut; 15. Starčevo; 16. Obrež; 17. Grabovac; 18. Divostin; 19. Tečić; 20. Bubanj; 21. Lepenski Vir; 22. Velesnica; 23. Obre I; 24. Glăvănești Vechi; 25. Valea Lupului; 26. Gura Bacului; 27. Arad; 28. Besenova Veche; 29. Leș; 30. Valea Răii; 31. Trestiana; 32. Schela Cladovei; 33. Cârcea-Hanuri; 34. Cârcea Viaducti; 35. Ovcharovo; 36. Malkata Peštera; 37. Golemata Peštera; 38. Samovodene; 39. Čavdar; 40. Kazanluk; 41. Karanovo; 42. Azmak; 43. Kovačevo; 44. Asmaška; 45. Kapitan Dimitrevo; 46. Muldava; 47. Yabalkovo; 48. Nova Nadezhda; 49. Delcevo; 50. Amzabegovo; 51. Dikili Tash; 52. Sesklo. (B, C, D) A typical bone spoon from the site Grad-Starčevo (Spoon No 03–1995) (S1 movie) in front (B), lateral (C) and back projection (D).
Fig 2.
Cattle metapodial bones before chewing by primary teeth.
Fig 3.
(A) The dental articulator, with primary teeth placed in casts of maxillary and mandibular gums constructed for a simulation of chewing; (B-D). The documentation of the experimental biting procedure, tooth M3; (B) Cattle metatarsal photographed before the experiment and (C) after the experiment; (D) Raw referent images obtained from the microscopes were processed and all measurements performed in Gwyddion open source software.
Fig 4.
Teeth marks experimentally produced on cattle bone by incisors.
(A) The pit marks produced by the ‘biting’ movement, details of the pit marks (B-D). (E) The score marks produced by the ‘tearing’ movement, details of the score marks (F-H).
Fig 5.
Teeth marks experimentally produced on cattle bone by canines.
(A) The pit marks produced by the ‘biting’ movement, details of the pit marks (B-D). (E) The score marks produced by the ‘tearing’ movement, details of the score marks (F-H).
Fig 6.
Teeth marks experimentally produced on cattle bone by the molar 1 and molar 2.
(A) The score marks produced by the ‘tearing’ movement of M1, the details of the score marks (B). (C) The score marks produced by the ‘tearing’ movement of M2, the details of score marks (D-F).
Fig 7.
Teeth marks experimentally produced on cattle bone by the molar 3 and molar 4.
(A) The pit marks produced by the ‘biting’ movement of the M3, details of the pit marks (B-D). (E) The pit marks produced by the ‘biting’ movement of the M4, details of the pit marks (F-H).
Fig 8.
The recording procedure for marks on spoons.
(A, B) An example of the procedure for recording and measuring of the marks on the spoons, grid 03–3549_FFA-C_5–6 before (A) and after measuring (B).
Fig 9.
The division of spoons into quadrants and parts.
The quadrants on the spoon 03–3548 (A), merged quadrants for double sided analysis: A7+B7; D11+C11; A6+B6; D20+C20; D12+C12; D10+C10; D13+C13; D14+C14; 03–6901 (B), merged quadrants for double sided analysis: A2+B2; A6+B6; A7+B7; B1+C1; C10+D10; C11+D11; C9+D9; 03–3549 (C), merged quadrants for double sided analysis: A5+B5; A13+B13; A14+B14; A4+B4; 5 B1+B2.
Fig 10.
The pits and scores from the experimental study and the spoons.
An elliptical pit–a Neolithic spoon (A), the experimental study (B), a 3D pit from a spoon (C); a drop like pit—a Neolithic spoon (D), the experimental study (E), a 3D pit from a spoon (F); a round pit–a Neolithic spoon (G), the experimental study (H), a 3D pit from a spoon (I); a crescent pit–a Neolithic spoon (J), the experimental study (K), a 3D pit from a spoon (L); a score—a Neolithic spoon (M), the experimental study (N), a 3D score from a spoon (O). (P) The measurements of mark dimensions—the length and breadth.
Fig 11.
The comparison of size and shape distributions of experimental marks produced by primary teeth on cattle bones, the marks on Neolithic spoons and the marks recorded on other classes of Neolithic bone tools. The distributions of metric variables are presented as kernel density graphs. (A) The length of pit marks. (B) The breadth of pit marks. (C) The length to breadth ratio for pit marks. (D) Qualitatively defined shape categories. (E) The breadth of score marks.
Fig 12.
The front vs. back mark density on spoons.
(A, B) Spoon No. 3549. Left panel: horizontal segments (A) right panel: merged and unmerged quadrants (B). (C, D) Spoon No. 6901. Left panel: horizontal segments (C), right panel: merged and unmerged quadrants (D). Spoon No. 3548. Left panel: horizontal segments (E), right panel: merged and unmerged quadrants (F).
Fig 13.
The density of marks (pits and scores) on the front and back sides of spoons.
The schematic drawing of spoons from the Neolithic site Grad-Starčevo shows the distribution of marks (pits and scores) on the front and back side on the spoons No. 3548 (A), No. 6901 (B), No. 3549 (C). The general correspondence of the front and back areas of high and low density is apparent from the maps in Fig 13.
Fig 14.
The marks on spoons from the site Grad-Starčevo.
The Spoon 03–3548, front (A), back (B); the Spoon 03–6901, front (C), back (D). The Spoon 03–6901, front (C), back (D). The details of spoons with numerous pits and scores, the Spoon 03–3548 front (E, F) and spoon 03–6901, front (G) and back (H). A microscopic representation of single pits and scores (I-P): the Spoon 03–3548 three grouped pits (I), drop like pit (J, K), elliptical pit (M), round pit (N), score (O); spoon 6901, two elliptical pits (L), score (P).
Fig 15.
The marks on the Spoon No. 03–3549 from Grad-Starčevo site.
(A, B) The Spoon 03–3549, front (A), back (B). (C, D) The details of the spoon with numerous pits and scores, front (C), back (D). (E, F, G, H) The microscopic and 3D microscopic representation of pits.
Fig 16.
A pit and score on Spoon No. 03–3548.
Probable activity of a single tooth, which, as a continual movement, created a pit by biting (black arrow) and a score by dragging the spoon (red arrow).
Fig 17.
Spoons from Donja Branjevina (A) the Spoon 117, front and back, (B) spoon 118 (front and back), (C) spoon 156 front and back, (D) spoon 159 front and back, (E) spoon 318, front and back, (F) spoon 319, front and back. Spoons from Grad Starčevo (G) spoon 24 front and back, (I) spoon 28 front and back, (J) spoon 22 front and back.