Fig 1.
Locations of study area and the hydrological and meteorological observation stations.
Fig 2.
Records of annual highest water level of Panhlaing River at the Nyaungdon station from 1985 to 2016.
Fig 3.
(a) Total rainfall hyetographs of ten observation stations and (b) hydrographs of upstream inflow observed at the Zalun station from April 1 to August 31 in 2011, 2015, and 2016.
Table 1.
Data sets and data sources.
Fig 4.
The flowchart of model simulation used in this study.
Fig 5.
Comparisons of the simulated and observed discharges for the (a, d) 2011, (b, e) 2015, and (c, f) 2016 flood events at the Zalun station; (a)-(c) show the model results calibrated against the 2011 flood event, while (d)-(f) are the model results calibrated against the 2016 flood event, i.e., the cross-calibration results.
Fig 6.
Model-simulated potential flood inundated areas for the (a) 2011 and (b) 2015 (c) 2016 flood events.
Fig 7.
Comparison of flood extent areas: (a) model simulation and observed (MSI) for the 2015 flood event and (b) model simulation and observed (MODIS) for the 2016 flood event.
Table 2.
Potential flood inundated area with different water depth in three flooded years.
Table 3.
Summary of the modeled and satellite-observed inundation results and the model performance metrics.
Fig 8.
Flood hazard map of Nyaungdon Township based on the composite results of the 2015 and 2016 flood events, which corresponds to a flood event with about 30-year return period.