Fig 1.
Representative XRD and FESEM images of kidney stones used in the present study.
(a) KS-8 and KS-10 COM and struvite crystals showing highest peak intensity at (040) plane. KS-17 Uric acid crystal showing preferred texture growth along (121) plane. (b-d) Pure stones viewed by conventional photography and FESEM. (b) COM appeared as reticulate type of appearance and boundaries of small crystallites. (c) Struvite crystals showed small crystals with hemimorphic morphology. (d) Uric acid crystals showed agglomerates of plate like crystals with clusters of small crystals (scale 10 μm).
Table 1.
Patient demographics and stone mineral composition.
Fig 2.
Pure COM stone micro-morphology.
(a) A reconstructed μCT slice showing concentric layers of organization. (b) A typical SR-μCT image slice showing visible, radial pattern with concentric layers of organization showing a prominent ring artefact. Arrow mark shows central denser region of high X-ray attenuation values consistent with apatite nucleus. (c) SR-μCT slice showing multiple layers of organisation. Arrow mark shows the presence of visible internal cracks.
Fig 3.
Micro-morphology of COM showing tomographic slice image and the internal 3-D morphology.
(a) Maximum-intensity projection of the stone that displays the internal 3-D morphology. Inset showing the conventional photography. (b) Histogram and profile lines measured for outer layer and internal apatite nucleus showing the difference of density in the two regions. (c & d) 3-D reconstruction of the stone that displays the internal 3-D morphology showing a central denser nucleation point and the presence of apatite nucleus. Arrow marks show occasional layers of apatite laid down in the COM.
Fig 4.
Micro-morphology of pure stone types.
(a) SR-μCT image slice of struvite stone showing a pattern of two separate layers with void spaces, micro and macro pores (arrow). The thin white lines showing the apatite. (b) SR-μCT image slice of uric acid stone showing homogenous texture. (c) 3-D surface rendering with slice across the image stack of uric acid stone.
Fig 5.
Micro-morphology and 3-D reconstruction of the representative mixed stone types.
(a & b) COD-apatite mixed stones. Apatite found along with COD in an unorganized manner. The apatite mixed stones showed relatively high absorption signals and articles of embedded crystals (green). (c & d) COM-uric acid mixed stones. The COM crystal components having relatively higher absorption (green) are directly inverse to the relatively weak absorption observed in uric acid crystals (red). (e & f) Struvite-apatite mixed showing two mineral types by distinct X-ray attenuation; struvite (red), apatite (or carbapatite) (green) and porous air cavities (blue). (g & h) COD-COM-apatite mixed. These stones exhibited visible internal micro and macro pores and showed three distinct layers with varying density and porosity. Arrow indicates apatite nucleus.