Fig 1.
Effects of ungulates on seed carbon content and seedling emergence rate.
Ungulate effect on seed carbon content of Moricandia moricandioides at between-plant (a) and at within-plant level (b). Ungulate effect on emergence rate at between-plant (c) and at within-plant level (d). Mean ± SE.
Table 1.
Ungulate and PSP effects on seed quality and glucosinolate concentrations at between-plant and within-plant levels of Moricandia moricandioides.
Table 2.
Ungulate and PSP effects on seedling emergence and emergence time at between-plant and within-plant levels of Moricandia moricandioides.
Fig 2.
Transgenerational effects of ungulates and PSPs on next generation seedling herbivory.
a) Transgenerational ungulate and PSP effects on attacked leaves of Moricandia moricandioides seedlings by leaf miners at between-plant level (Field Experiment 1). b) Transgenerational ungulate and PSP effects on total number of attacked leaves in seedlings at between-plant level (Field Experiment 1). c) Transgenerational ungulate and PSP effects on total number of attacked leaves in seedlings at within-plant level (Field Experiment 2). d) Transgenerational ungulate and PSP effects on total number of attacked leaves in seedlings by grasshoppers at within-plant level (Field Experiment 2). Mean ± SE.
Table 3.
Ungulate and PSP effects on seedling performance and herbivory (seedling resistance) at between-plant and within-plant levels of Moricandia moricandioides.
Fig 3.
Illustrative figure of the observed transgenerational effects of ungulates and PSPs on Moricandia moricandioides.
At between-plant level, we observed that ungulates reduced seed quality (carbon content) and seedling emergence rate, but these seedlings were more resistant to the attack by leaf miners. In addition, seedlings from mother plants exposed to ungulates and attacked by PSPs suffered less herbivory by grasshoppers. At within-plant level, the negative effect of ungulates was strengthened on plants with PSPs, as ungulates reduced seed quality and seedling emergence rate but also seedling survival rate. We observed variation in transgenerational-induced resistance among siblings, as seedlings from mother plants exposed to ungulates and from fruits attacked by PSPs were more resistant to herbivores than seedlings from the same plants from un-attacked fruits.