Fig 1.
a) PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) 2009 flow diagram; and b) study-specific flowchart, both showing exclusion steps starting from studies returned from the full Web of Science and ICRS Proceedings literature search.
Reviews and other meta-analyses, as well as secondary literature, or data which were repeated in more than one manuscript were excluded. Manuscripts which were not related to El Niño/La Niña warming, or otherwise not relevant to the current study were excluded. Relevant reviews were divided into manuscripts which address El Niño/La Niña-related changes in coral cover, and coral bleaching (n = 7 studies included both). Qualitative studies were removed, as they could not be included in analyses. Coral cover studies were then excluded if they did not include before-El Niño/La Niña data. Finally, studies were excluded if they did not include either sample size or a measurement of error, did not quantify a standardized metric, or were conducted more than 2 years after the El Niño/La Niña warming event. A PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) checklist is available in S1 Fig.
Table 1.
Definition of derived variables included in our new data product.
All variables are computed for a user-provided latitude/longitude and date, which can include any time point since 1984. With the exception of the first three months of 1982, we also calculate these same parameters for 1982–1983, although the beginning of usable data is in January 1982, so calculation of maximum DHW and time lag are restricted to within this window. Data are accessible at www.CoralStress.org.
Fig 2.
Maximum heat stress (DHW) for each reef location in the world (calculated at a 0.25° spatial resolution from AVHRR satellite data) during each of the eight El Niños that occurred in the past 35 years.
Fig 3.
Study locations included in this global meta-analysis.
Studies reporting changes in coral bleaching due to El Niño/La Niña warming are marked in white, and studies reporting changes in coral cover due to El Niño/La Niña warming are marked in red. The background color scale represents the number of data points that were extracted from each location. Data from non-El Niño/La Niña bleaching events, and from papers excluded from this meta-analysis are not included on this map.
Table 2.
Top model results for coral bleaching (including measured and simulated before-bleaching values) and coral cover loss (up to one year after maximum heat stress).
Fig 4.
Effect size and moderators of top coral bleaching and coral cover models (p-value < 0.001 noted with ***, p-value <0.05 noted with *).
a) Overall effect size (standardized mean difference ± 95% confidence intervals) for coral bleaching (black; including measured and simulated before-bleaching values) and coral cover loss (red; up to one year after maximum heat stress). El Niño/La Niña warming significantly increases coral bleaching and significant decreases coral cover. Significant moderators in b) the coral bleaching model and c) the coral cover model. MaxDHW is maximum DHW experienced by reef during the present El Niño event, SSTmean is the long-term mean temperature, and TimeLag is the time since maximum DHW occurred. A colon represents an interaction between two moderators.
Fig 5.
El Niño events with the greatest heat stress.
Both figures show which El Niño event caused the greatest maximum DHW for each area. Note that this figure does not demonstrate bleaching response, only maximum cumulative heat stress per El Niño event. The events are color-coded by year. The 1997/1998 El Niño event (green) was the most severe event in the Eastern Pacific around the South American coast. a) All El Niño events from 1982–2010, showing how much heterogeneity there is in the geographic distribution of the most extreme heat stress. b) All El Niño events since 1982, including the 2015–2016 El Niño event, demonstrating the coral heat stress homogenization that occurred during this most recent El Niño/La Niña warming event.