Fig 1.
Sites reporting direct radiocarbon measurements of barley grains.
The oldest individually dated grains of barley from each region are indicated. The pathways to the east for wheat and barley are probably distinct from each other. The introduction of wheat and barley into South Asia involves both hulled and naked forms, and a millennium older than the introduction of wheat and barley into East Asia, which were restricted to naked forms. Free-threshing wheats spread to China with a route to the north of the Tibetan Plateau. Naked barley is likely to have been introduced to China via southern highland routes that remain to be identified. 1. Harappa, 2. Kanispur, 3. Balu, 4. Tigrana, 5. Masudspur VII, 6. Burj, 7. Khirsara, 8. Kanmer, 9. Lahuredewa, 10. Damdama, 11. Agaibir, 12. Mahagara, 13. Koldihwa, 14. Hanumantaraopeta, 15. Sannarachamma, 16. Hiregudda, 17. Changguogou, 18. Khog Gzung, 19. Banga, 20. Changning, 21. Fengtai, 22. Xiasunjiazhai, 23. Gongshijia, 24. Jiaoridang, 25. Tawendaliha, 26. Hongshanzuinanpo, 27. Qiezha, 28. Huidui, 29. Lagalamaerma, 30. Luowalinchang, 31. Dongfengxinan, 32. Kalashishuwan, 33. Weijiabao, 34. Tuanjie, 35. Erfang, 36. Wenjia, 37. Bayan, 38. Talitaliha, 39. Caodalianhuxi, 40. Shuangerdongping, 41. Yingpandi, 42. Xiawatai, 43. Lalongwa, 44. Gagai, 45. Keer, 46. Lamuzui, 47. Yanguo, 48. Shawuang, 49. Heishuiguo, 50. Mogou, 51. Huoshaogou, 52. Donghuishan, 53. Ojakly, 54. Tasbas, 55. Aigyrzhal-2, 56. Yanghai, 57. Shengjindian, 58. Yuergou, 59. Sidaogou, 60. Shirenzigou, 61. Wangchenggang, 62. Zhaogezhuang, 63. 4-MSR.
Table 1.
Direct radiocarbon dates for archaeobotanical barley grains from East, Central and South Asia.
Data include radiocarbon determinations carried out in this study and those that have been previously published. The radiocarbon data have been calibrated using the IntCal13 calibration curve, and are presented at the 95.4% probability range.
Fig 2.
The ‘first appearance dates’ of barley derived by Bayesian statistical modeling for fifteen regional groupings (further grouped into seven broader regional groupings) of archaeological sites across central, south and east Asia.
(See Supporting Information for full details regarding the model construction). The horizontal bars below each of the probability density functions reflect the 68.2% and 95.4% highest probability density ranges, respectively. These results show a north to south chronological sequence of the first appearance dates of barley within South Asia, and a south to north sequence between South and East Asia.
Fig 3.
The implied ‘first appearance dates’ (i.e. ‘Start’ Boundaries) of the fifteen regions derived from the Bayesian statistical model (green).
The contributing radiocarbon data are additionally plotted (with modeled data in darker gray overlying the unmodeled, calibrated data in lighter gray). The horizontal bars below each of the probability density functions reflect the 68.2% and 95.4% highest probability density ranges, respectively.
Table 2.
References to planting and harvesting time of barley/wheat in ancient Chinese texts from the first millennium BC.
See Table A S1 File for original texts/translations and more information about the chronology of the texts.
Fig 4.
Geographic distributions of the non-responsive haplotypes A and B of the Ppd-H1 gene in extant landrace barley.
Re-drawn and modified after Fig 2 in [1].