Fig 1.
Map of Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico, showing elevation, topography, and watersheds discussed in text.
Fig 2.
Map of rain gages (past and present) in the Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico, and table providing elevation and mean annual precipitation (MAP) for each gage (MAP for some gages were adjusted for low or high precipitation during short periods of record; see S1 Table for more details).
Fig 3.
Maps of a) elevation filtered to a 1-km diameter and b) residual fields of mean annual precipitation interpolated with simple kriging using 24 neighboring stations.
Fig 4.
Elevation versus mean annual precipitation measured at rain gages and as predicted for those gages by the Parameter-elevation Relationships on Independent Slopes Model (PRISM [6]) in the Luquillo Mountains for a) all watersheds (polynomial equation from [9] also shown); b) western (leeward); c) eastern (windward); d) northern; and e) southern watersheds.
Fig 5.
Maps of Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico, showing mean annual precipitation as predicted by a) spatial model developed from 1-km wavelength/MAP regression and residual interpolation; b) PRISM [6]; and c) radar [80].
Table 1.
Characteristics of watersheds in the Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico, and estimates of mean annual precipitation, runoff, and annual evapotranspiration.
Fig 6.
Mean annual precipitation versus mean annual runoff for temperate and tropical forests, Puerto Rico, and Luquillo Mountains (previous studies: a [27], b [19], c [3, 9, 18, 22, 24, 34, 35, 45, 103, 104]).
Fig 7.
Elevation and mean annual precipitation versus distance from the ocean from dominant wind direction for islands within the trade-wind region: a) Maui; b) Réunion; c) Oahu; d) New Caledonia; e) Luquillo Mountains, Puerto Rico (spatial model of Fig 5A).
Fig 8.
a) Three-dimensional view of elevation and topography of Luquillo Mountains showing a) potential path of dominant wind directions and watershed outlines, and b-d) cross-sections of elevation [78], watershed boundaries (dashed vertical lines), location of granodiorite intrusion [117] (gray shading), 600-m elevation (horizontal gray line) and potential precipitation mechanisms.