Fig 1.
The laser tape measure system used throughout this analysis.
J. Foster (pictured) has set the relay stations (denoted) on the opposing ends of a dorsal vertebra’s transverse processes. Placing the laser tape measure (denoted) against the side of one relay station, the beam refracts off of the opposing side, giving a length accurate within 3 mm.
Fig 2.
Location of the Camarasaurus sp. GPDM 220.
A. Map of North America with the United States of America (U.S.A) in burgundy, B. Map of the U.S.A. with the state of Montana in burgundy, C. Map of Montana with the extent of the Morrison Formation in sea green, and the general location of GPDM 220 indicated by the Camarasaurus skull silhouette.
Table 1.
Elemental measurements for the Camarasaurus sp. GPDM 220 “Ralph”.
All measurements are in mm.
Fig 3.
Skeletal reconstruction of the Camarasaurus sp. GPDM 220.
Black elements represent material known from GPDM 220, burgundy elements are missing. Scale bar = 1 m, silhouette is of esteemed and renowned sauropod expert John “Jack” Stanton McIntosh. Skeletal reconstruction of Camarasaurus by S. Hartman.
Fig 4.
Skull of GPDM 220 in right lateral [I], dorsal [II], anterior [III] posterior [IV], and left lateral [V] views. Note the red inset box in the dorsal view (II) which highlights the postparietal aperture (indicated by the white arrow). All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm. Abbreviations: l. left, r. right, aof antorbital fenestra, bo basioccipital, eo exoccipital, en external naris, f frontal, fm foramen magnum, itf infratemporal fenestra, j jugal, l lacrimal, m maxilla, n nasal, o orbit, oc occipital condyle, p parietal, pm premaxilla, po postorbital, pt pterygoid, pop paraoccipital process, prf prefrontal, sp squamosal, stf supratemporal fenestra, q quadrate, qj quadratojugal.
Fig 5.
Left (I–III) and right (IV–VI) dentary of GPDM 220 in lateral (I & IV), medial (II & V), and dorsal (III & VI) views. All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 6.
Left surangular of GPDM 220 in dorsal (I), lateral (II), medial (III), and ventral (IV) views. All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 7.
Right surangular of GPDM 220 in dorsal (I), lateral (II), medial (III), and ventral (IV) views. All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 8.
Left angular of GPDM 220 in dorsal (I), lateral (II), medial (III), and ventral (IV) views. All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 9.
Right angular of GPDM 220 in dorsal (I), lateral (II), medial (III), and ventral (IV) views. All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 10.
Left prearticular of GPDM 220 in dorsal (I), lateral (II), medial (III), and ventral (IV) views. All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 11.
Note for an unknown reason, only a portion of the referred elements are portrayed on the map. Map created by Elizabeth Kidera Beckman.
Fig 12.
Cervical vertebra 1 of GPDM 220 in the six anatomical planes (dorsal [I], anterior [II], right [III] and left lateral [IV], posterior [V], and ventral [VI]). All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 13.
Cervical vertebra 2 of GPDM 220 in the six anatomical planes (dorsal [I], anterior [II], right [III] and left lateral [IV], posterior [V], and ventral [VI]). All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 14.
Cervical vertebra 3 of GPDM 220 in the six anatomical planes (dorsal [I], anterior [II], right [III] and left lateral [IV], posterior [V], and ventral [VI]). All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 15.
Cervical vertebra 4 of GPDM 220 in the six anatomical planes (dorsal [I], anterior [II], right [III] and left lateral [IV], posterior [V], and ventral [VI]). All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 16.
Cervical vertebra 5 of GPDM 220 in the six anatomical planes (dorsal [I], anterior [II], right [III] and left lateral [IV], posterior [V], and ventral [VI]). All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm. Note the red inset box in the posterior view (V) which highlights the odd, paired openings on the left postzygapophysis (indicated by the white arrow).
Fig 17.
Cervical vertebra 6 of GPDM 220 in the six anatomical planes (dorsal [I], anterior [II], right [III] and left lateral [IV], posterior [V], and ventral [VI]). All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm. A–C illustrates the large pathology in posteroventral oblique (A), ventral (B), and lateral (C) view. A–C not to scale.
Fig 18.
Cervical vertebra 7 of GPDM 220 in the six anatomical planes (dorsal [I], anterior [II], right [III] and left lateral [IV], posterior [V], and ventral [VI]). All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 19.
Cervical vertebra 8 of GPDM 220 in dorsal [I], anterior [II], right [III] and left lateral [IV], and posterior [V] views. All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 20.
Cervical vertebrae 9 of GPDM 220 in dorsal [I], anterior [II], right [III] and left lateral [IV], and posterior [V] views. All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 21.
Cervical vertebra 10 of GPDM 220 in the six anatomical planes (dorsal [I], anterior [II], right [III] and left lateral [IV], posterior [V], and ventral [VI]). All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 22.
Cervical vertebra 11 of GPDM 220 in the six anatomical planes (dorsal [I], anterior [II], right [III] and left lateral [IV], posterior [V], and ventral [VI]). All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 23.
Dorsal vertebra 1 of GPDM 220 in the six anatomical planes (dorsal [I], anterior [II], right [III] and left lateral [IV], posterior [V], and ventral [VI]). All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 24.
Dorsal vertebra 2 of GPDM 220 in the six anatomical planes (dorsal [I], anterior [II], right [III] and left lateral [IV], posterior [V], and ventral [VI]). All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 25.
Serially identifiable dorsal ribs of GPDM 220.
All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 26.
Caudal vertebra of GPDM 220 in the six anatomical planes (dorsal [I], anterior [II], right [III] and left lateral [IV], posterior [V], and ventral [VI]). All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 27.
Incomplete left scapula–in left lateral (I) and medial (II) views, single caudal chevron–in anterior (III) and left (IV) lateral views, and single right metatarsal–in anterior (V) and posterior (VI) views, of GPDM 220. Elements not to scale with one another. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 28.
Primary hind limb elements of GPDM 220.
A. Incomplete and unprepared left femur in I. posterolateral oblique view, and II. distal view. B. Incomplete right tibia in I. anterior, II. posterior, and III. distal views. C. Incomplete left fibula in I. anterior, II. posterior, and III. distal views. Elements not to scale with one another. Scale bar = 10 cm.
Fig 29.
Histology of femur core from GPDM 220.
The concentrations of tissue types D—F indicate a HOS of 10 out of 13. An EFS is present, and the LAGs constituting it are marked with white arrows.
Fig 30.
Histology of dorsal rib from GPDM 220.
The green inset box showing greater detail of the histologic composition of this element–from the generations of secondary osteons, to vascular canal forms, to LAGs (outlined in blue). Red inset box is a higher magnification of the periosteal most portion of the outer cortex highlighting the four LAGs that constitute the EFS (marked by white arrows).
Fig 31.
Schematic dorsal view of the cervical series of GPDM 220 highlighting the distribution of vertebral pathologies.
The red circle indicates the large ventral pathology, while yellow indicates the postzygapophyseal foramina, and the orange indicates the prezygapophyseal foramina. Schematic drawing modified from Christopher [28].
Fig 32.
Schematic diagram of the degrees of neural spine bifurcation within Camarasaurus specimens.
Modified from Wedel and Taylor [42]. Note that we alternatively recognize dorsal 6 of GMNH-PV 101 as “shallowly bifid”.
Fig 33.
Geographic distribution of Camarasaurus specimens within the Morrison Formation by locality.
Small open circles indicate single localities; numbers indicate numbers of quarries clustered in small areas represented by larger circles. N = 103. Dashed line is extent of Morrison Formation in outcrop and subsurface.
Fig 34.
Known minimum geographic distributions of the four Camarasaurus species within the Morrison Formation.
Fig 35.
The smallest thus identified Camarasaurus posterior cranial material (MOR 7029 6-6-15-186) in the six anatomical planes (dorsal [I], anterior [II], right [III] and left lateral [IV], posterior [V], and ventral [VI]). All orientations to scale. Scale bar = 10 cm. Abbreviations: l. left, r. right, bo basioccipital, bp basipterygoid process, bs basiphenoid, eo exoccipital, fm foramen magnum, oc occipital condyle, op opisthotic, pop paraoccipital process.