Table 1.
Comparison with other systems reported previously.
Fig 1.
The proposed navigation system.
Schematic view of screw insertion point localization and real-time measurement of the drilling angle.
Fig 2.
The principle of the proposed laser guidance system.
The planes of the beams emitted by the two lasers are perpendicular to the reference plane, and the distal hole is located on the intersection line between the planes of the two laser beams.
Fig 3.
The 3D models of the handle and nail.
They were designed for measuring the mismatch between the axis and the insertion angle.
Fig 4.
The designed modules of the navigation system.
Photographs of the line-laser guidance module and real-time angle measurement module.
Fig 5.
Diagram of cross-sectional view in distal thigh.
It shows the geometrical relation between the drill insertion point guided by the system and the distal hole of the nail.
Fig 6.
Alignment of different planes for ensuring perpendicular insertion of the screw.
Fig 7.
Real-time visual feedback on the drill’s path.
Fig 8.
Electronic circuits implemented on the printed circuit board (PCB) for the angle measurement module.
Fig 9.
Block diagram of the 3D orientation estimation method based on Madgwick’s algorithm.
Fig 10.
Schematic cross-sectional view of distal hole in nail.
The black-dotted line in the center represents the desired insertion path. The red arrow line represents an incorrect path of the drill bit.
Fig 11.
Experimental procedures for validating the developed navigation system.
Fig 12.
In-vitro study using the laser guidance system with the orientation estimation system integrated in the drill and the handle.
Fig 13.
The C-arm radiographic images for evaluating the accuracy of the developed navigation system.
Table 2.
Results of the experiments for evaluating the developed system.
Fig 14.
The normalized up-time in percentage during conducting a large number of experiment trials.
The x-axis shows the number of trials.