Fig 1.
a. Geographic location of the Les Dogues shelter (Ares del Maestre, Castellón, Spain). The geographic zone of influence of Spanish Levantine rock art is shown in red. b. Floor plan of Les Dogues showing the location of paintings. c. Les Dogues is indicated by the white rectangle. d. Cavity I. Location of the battle scene indicated by the white rectangle. J.B. Porcar’s tracing reprinted from Archivo de Prehistoria Levantina under a CC BY license, with permission from the Editor-in-chief, original copyright 1953.
Fig 2.
Battle scene of Les Dogues located in cavity I.
a. Image showing the low visibility of motifs to the naked eye. b. Image enhancement tools (D-Stretch for Image J) augment the visibility of the poorly preserved charcoal pigments and facilitate the accurate reading of motifs. c. Tracing by J.B. Porcar (1953). Reprinted from Archivo de Prehistoria Levantina under a CC BY license, with permission from the Editor-in-chief, original copyright 1953.
Fig 3.
Localisation of the in situ measurement points and the four motifs sampled.
J.B Porcar’s tracing reprinted from Archivo de Prehistoria Levantina under a CC BY license, with permission from the Editor-in-chief, original copyright 1953.
Fig 4.
Portable EDXRF spectrometer used in Les Dogues.
Fig 5.
Protocol of the two replicated chaînes opératoires that were carried out.
Fig 6.
The black line represents the spectrum of black pigment from one archer involved in the battle scene of cavity I; the red line shows the EDXRF Spectrum of the bedrock. On the right, digital tracing showing the measurement points of the pigment, in blue, and the bedrock, in green; photograph and image modified using colour space transformations (D-Stretch for Image J) to improve the visibility of the motif.
Fig 7.
Raman spectra (A) of representative points of the DOGUES_1 sample from one archer from the battle scene in cavity I (C-F). B. OM image of a cross-section of the DOGUES_1 sample illustrating its microstratigraphy. Black pigment showing bands of amorphous carbon (a-b-c). Bands of whewellite and weddellite from the substratum (d). Accretion with calcite and gypsum bands (e-f). C. Digital tracing of the sampled archer showing the point of analysis. D. Tracing (by J.B Porcar) of the battle scene showing the position of the sampled archer. Battle scene reprinted from Archivo de Prehistoria Levantina under a CC BY license, with permission from the Editor-in-chief, original copyright 1953. E. Photograph. F. Image enhancement using D-Stretch for Image-J.
Fig 8.
SEM Microphotographs showing the content of the DOGUES_2 and DOGUES_3 samples.
a. Panoramic view of the DOGUES_2 sample. b. Disintegrated plant tissue identified in DOGUES_2.
Fig 9.
SEM microphotographs of conifer cells in the DOGUES_2 and DOGUES_3 samples.
a-b. Fractured cell and possible ray cells identified in DOGUES_2. c-d. Possible tracheid and cells in anatomical connection from DOGUES_3.
Fig 10.
SEM microphotographs of an angiosperm cell from sample DOGUES_2.
a. Vessel. b. Detail of spiral thickenings and pits.
Fig 11.
a. Organic structures (fungal or bacterial microorganisms) in the DOGUES_3 sample. b-c. SEM microphotographs of calcium oxalates of the DOGUES_2 sample.
Fig 12.
a. Sample taken from a stroke drawn with an experimental crayon made from Arbutus unedo charcoal. Plant tissues are anatomically connected and a precise botanical identification is possible. b-c. Sample taken from a stroke drawn with an experimental crayon made from Pistacia terebinthus charcoal. Small sized particles can be also observed, but pits and spiral thickenings are not obstructed. d. The DOGUES_2 sample, showing obstructed pits and spiral thickenings that have almost disappeared.
Fig 13.
Experimental replication of chaîne opératoire 2.
Different raw materials and binding mixtures carried out. SEM Microphotographs of different samples taken from the replicated strokes.
Fig 14.
a-b. Sample taken from a stroke drawn with a pigment prepared through a mixture of Rhamnus lycioides charcoal powder, milk, and egg white.
Fig 15.
a. Sample from the pigment prepared with a mixture of Rhamnus lycioides charcoal powder, water, and honey. b. Sample from the pigment prepared with a mixture of Arbutus unedo charcoal powder, water, and fat. c. Sample from pigment prepared with a mixture of Pistacia terebinthus charcoal powder, water, and egg white. d. Sample from pigment prepared with a mixture of Rhamnus lycioides charcoal powder, milk, and egg white.
Fig 16.
a. Sample from the pigment prepared with a mixture of Pinus halepensis charcoal powder and water. b. Sample from the pigment prepared with a mixture of Rhamnus lycioides charcoal powder and water.
Fig 17.
Digital tracings of human motifs sampled from Les Dogues.
a. Linear motifs located in cavity I. b. Archer located in cavity II.