Fig 1.
The 16S Maximum Likelihood phylogram of the closest lineages of Polypedates and Taruga, represented by 33 taxa.
Four mantellid species are used as the outgroup. Tadpole sequences are indicated as “TP.”
Fig 2.
Chondrocrania of the foam-nesting genera, Polypedates and Taruga.
(A) A labeled chondrocranium of Polypedates maculatus. Comparative illustrations of the chondrocrania of the four species: Taruga eques (B), Taruga longinasus (C), Polypedates cruciger (D) and Polypedates maculatus (E). Abbreviations: AP, ascending process; ARP, articular process; ASO, arcus subocularis; IC, infrarostral cartilage; LON, lamina orbitonasalis; MC, Meckel’s cartilage; MP, muscular process; OC, otic capsule; OP, otic process; QC, anterior quadratocranial commissure; QEP, quadratoethmoidal process; SA, suprarostral ala; SC, suprarostral cartilage; SMC, suprarostral medial corpus; TH, trabecular horns; TTD, taenia tecti medialis; TTM, taenia tecti marginalis; TS, tectum synoticum. Scale bar: 5 mm.
Fig 3.
Comparison of ossification sequences and ossification indices (cranial bones) of Taruga and Polypedates.
(A) Initial appearance of cranial bones (N = 19) is plotted against the Gosner stage for the four species. (B) Ossification indices of the four species is calculated to each individual (circles) by dividing the number of present ossified skull bones by the total number of scored elements in the cranium. The initial ossification is relatively slow in the two species of Polypedates (green and yellow open dots), fast in the two species of Taruga (blue and red open dots). But as development progresses, ossification rate of Polypedates species increases.
Fig 4.
Modification and repatterning of the chondrocrania at stages 31, 38 and 43 of Taruga longinasus (A), T. eques (B), Polypedates maculatus (C), and P. cruciger (D).
Fig 5.
Osteology of Polypedates cruciger, adult male.
(A) Cranium, dorsal view. (B) Cranium, ventral view. (C) Lower jaw. (D) Hyoid skeleton. (E) Pectoral girdle. (F) Left hind limb. (G) Left forelimb. (H) Axial skeleton. Abbreviations: AG, angulosplenial; AT, atlas; ALP, anterolateral process; CN, centrum; COP, coronoid process; CP, carpals; CR, coracoid; CT, cleithrum; CV, clavicle; DP, distal phalange digit; DT, dentary; EX, exoccipital; FP, frontoparietal; HU, humerus; HP, hyoid plate; HY, hyale; IL, illium; MC, metacarpal; MNT, mentomeckelian; MT, metatarsal; MX, maxilla; NS, nasal; OC, oblique cartilage; OS, omosternum; PA, parasphenoid; PAR, pars articularis; PH, prehallux; PL, palatine; PLP, posterolateral process; PM, premaxilla; PMP, posteromedial process; PR, prootic; PT, pterygoid; QJ, quadratojugal; RL, radiale; RU, radioulna; SC, scapula; SD, sacral diapophysis; SP, sphenethmoid; SQ, squamosal; SS, suprascapula; ST, sternum; TA, tympanum annulus; TP, transverse process; TR, tarsal; UL, ulnare; US, urostyle; VM, vomer. Scale bar: 5 mm.
Fig 6.
Comparison of the osteology of Polypedates and Taruga, adult males.
(A) Cranium, dorsal view. (B) Cranium, ventral view. (C) Lower jaw. (D) Hyoid skeleton. (E) Pectoral girdle. (F) Axial skeleton of Polypedates cruciger, P. maculatus, Taruga eques and T. longinasus.
Fig 7.
Comparison of the distal phalanges of the forelimb and hind limb.
(A) Taruga eques. (B) T. longinasus. (C) Polypedates cruciger. (D) P. maculatus.