Table 1.
Residues that imply hafting on archaeologically-recovered stone tools.
Fig 1.
Map of Nyae Nyae Conservancy showing the localities discussed in the text.
The plant names with white circles indicate the collection points for the material used at Eagle Pos.
Fig 2.
Hunting equipment from Dengwe and Dou Pos.
A. Detail of Dengwe quiver with arrows. Note the Sansevieria leaf above the quiver; B. Dengwe hunting bag with bow and quiver (made from blue plastic pipe); C. Black Ozoroa schinzii adhesive and yellow Terminalia sericea gum on Grewia flava stick that is both an applicator and storage device (from Dou Pos).
Fig 3.
Creating Ammocharis coranica glue.
A. /uce N≠amce digging the bulb (note the video camera attached to his chest); B. Ammocharis coranica bulb; C. Cutting bulb scales; D. Heating bulb scales (marked by red arrows) on coals; E. /uce N≠amce pounding heated bulb scales; F. Glue ball after kneading.
Fig 4.
Creating Ozoroa schinzii adhesive at Eagle Pos.
A. /uce N≠amce digging Ozoroa schinzii roots; B. Notched root heated on the embers. /uce N≠amce is using an applicator to smear boiling latex, which oozes from transverse incisions made in the root, on a glue stick; C. ≠oma /Kunta is crushing burnt grass to a fine powder in his right hand, into which he gently presses the Ozoroa latex on the stick. Note the lump of Terminalia sericea gum on the same glue stick.
Fig 5.
Creating Ozoroa schinzii adhesive at Dou Pos.
A. Ozoroa schinzii; B. //ao ≠Oma holding a metal digging stick and a piece of O. schinzii root in one hand, while using the other to cover the exposed, damaged root with sand; C. Section of O. schinzii root showing the difference in colour between the cortex, where the natural latex is located, and the inner area (xylem, phloem, pericycle); D. Drops of latex exuding, during heating, from notches cut into the O. schinzii root cortex; E. Collection of the latex from the notches; E. Stick with latex is pushed onto burned grass to incorporate charcoal in the latex.
Fig 6.
Using glue and adhesive to assemble an arrow at Eagle Pos.
A. Glue stick with clear Terminalia sericea glue (T) and black Ozoroa schinzii adhesive (O); B. Ozoroa schinzii adhesive is rubbed on the grass shaft; C. Sinew is wound over the Ozoroa schinzii adhesive; D. Terminalia sericea glue seals the sinew on the grass shaft; E. The wooden linkshaft is tested for size in the grass shaft; E. Terminalia sericea glue seals the sinew on the metal arrow shaft.
Fig 7.
Dengwe methods of processing sinew and using fixative.
A. G≠xao Kgao chewing animal sinew to make twine; B. Implement mounted with Ammocharis coranica glue, then wrapped with sinew; C. G≠xao Kgao applying Ozoroa schinzii adhesive to shaft; D. G≠xao Kgao applying Terminalia sericea gum to sinew on shaft.
Fig 8.
Preparing hunting equipment at Dou Pos.
A. Hunting bag with quiver containing complete arrows with arrow shafts covered with dried poison, unused arrow shafts, and wooden sticks ready to be transformed into poison applicators; B. Arrow shaft straightened by pressing and rotating on a piece of large, dying charcoal; C. //ao ≠Oma licking dry Terminalia sericea gum attached to a glue and poison applicator; D. Application of T. sericea gum on sinew covering the metal arrow shaft.
Fig 9.
A. Sinew is bound to the metal shaft and glued with Terminalia sericea glue; B. A grass collar is glued to the metal shaft with Terminalia sericea glue; C. The complete arrow is attached to the grass shaft with a wooden linkshaft. The linkshaft is glued to the grass collar so that the three component arrowhead is a single unit, whereas the grass shaft is loose and will detach during the hunt.
Fig 10.
Three stages in the life cycle of the Chrysomelid beetle found under a marula tree in Tsumkwe.
A. the gold and black-spotted beetle, pink, naked grub and earthen cocoon containing the grub; B. Polyclada sp. grub, dorsal and ventral views; C. Polyclada sp. grub mouthparts. Scale 1 mm; D. Polyclada sp. grub mouthparts. Scale 200 μm.
Fig 11.
The collection and preparation of Asparagus exuvialis additive at Eagle Pos.
A. ≠oma /Kunta and /uce N≠amce digging Asparagus exuvialis roots; B. ≠oma /Kunta softens a root by tapping it, /uce N≠amce squeezes sap on the pot lid; C. The heated Asparagus sap is stirred until it reduces and darkens; D. Hardened Asparagus sap on the stirring stick; E. Grinding the hardened Asparagus sap to powder in the glenoid cavity of a scapula mortar.
Fig 12.
Preparing arrow poison at Dou Pos.
A. //ao ≠Oma cleaning the articular facet of a giraffe vertebra to be used as a container for mixing poison; B. //ao ≠Oma squeezing Asparagus exuvialis tuber; C. Heating the A. exuvialis tubers in hot ashes; D. Squeezing sap from the tuber into the vertebra containing poison grub viscera.
Fig 13.
Making composite poison for arrows at Eagle Pos.
A. Squeezing grub viscera onto the Asparagus powder in the scapula mortar; B. After adding Acacia mellifera inner bark and spittle mix, the poison is mixed well in the mortar. Note the snake beans in the foreground; C. Poison is applied to the sinew on the shank of the arrowhead using a wooden applicator; D. The poisoned arrow is twirled over the coals to dry the poison.