Fig 1.
Flow chart of the analytic approach to identify lineage-specific biomarker levels.
A: differences in biomarker levels were sorted as specific to (i) humans, (ii) great apes, (iii) bonobos, (iv) chimpanzees, (v) Central African chimpanzees, (vi) West African chimpanzees and as (vii) non-lineage specific. B: Human-specific changes were defined as significant differences to chimpanzees and bonobos taken together (but not between the latter two species) as well as to rhesus macaques (shown); and as significant differences between humans and the individual great ape species (not shown), regardless of significant differences between species born and living under different environments. Relations of species as shown in cladograms derived from [103, 104].
Table 1.
Results for clinical chemical biomarkers in serum samples from wild- and captive-born great apes (wild-born Central African chimpanzees from the Republic of Congo (Ch—CG), wild-born West African chimpanzees from Sierra Leone (Ch—SL) and captive-born chimpanzees from Germany (Ch—DE), wild-born bonobos from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (B—CD) and captive-born bonobos from Germany (B—DE)), captive-born rhesus macaques from Germany (Rh—DE), and from healthy human volunteers (H—DE).
Fig 2.
Liver UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 (UGT1A1) promoter transcript expression in rhesus macaques, chimpanzees and humans [47] and respective TATAA-box length [56, 57, 105]
- UGT1A1 transcript expression was determined from RNA-Seq of human, chimpanzee and rhesus macaque liver RNA samples from 3 males and 3 females of each species [47]. Relative expression levels were calculated from the original dataset setting human expression levels at 100 percent (also see S1 Table for the variability of TA repeats in TATA box of UGT1A1 promoter in archaic hominins, humans and non-human primates).
Fig 3.
Liver UGT1A1-mRNA expression in mice on raw and cooked diets:
Liver mRNA expression of UGT1A1 transcripts in mice fed either a raw or cooked meat or raw or cooked or tuber diets was measured by RNA-Seq [49]. Total RNA was prepared from 17 individuals and sequenced as a pool on two lanes of an Illumina HiSeq 2500. Significant differences in expression between mice fed raw diets and mice fed cooked diets were quantified using DESeq [48].
Fig 4.
Lineage-specific biomarker levels in humans and other primates
- box representing 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles; whiskers representing 2.5th to 97.5th percentiles; outliers are not shown; description of species: Rh—DE: captive-born rhesus macaque samples from Germany; B—CD: wild-born bonobo samples from the Democratic Republic of the Congo; B—DE: captive-born bonobo samples from Germany; Ch—CG: wild-born Central African chimpanzee samples from the Republic of Congo; Ch—SL: wild-born West African chimpanzee samples from Sierra Leone; Ch—DE: captive-born West African chimpanzee samples Germany; H—DE: human samples from Germany; A: Bonobo-specific change in apolipoprotein A-I; human-specific change in B: bilirubin, C: cholinesterase and D: lactate; for determination of bilirubin, 1.71 μmol/L represents the lower limit of quantification of the assay.