Table 1.
LD50 Values and Concentrations of Compounds.
LD50 values of pyrethroids [5, 21–23] and their maximum detected concentrations in wax, pollen and bees as well as the total detected concentration [5]. The mean LD50 value was calculated and displayed when several LD50 values had been reported in the literature.
Fig 1.
Chemical structures of compounds used in this study.
(A) grayanotoxin I [38]; (B) aconitine [39]; (C) pyrethrin [40]; (D) allethrin [41]; (E) cyfluthrin [21]; (F) permethrin [22]; (G) tau-fluvalinate [23].
Table 2.
Compounds used in this Study, the LD50 Values for Bees and Their Interactions with Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels.
Table 3.
Descriptions of behaviours recorded using Noldus Observer 5.0, over the ten min observation period.
Fig 2.
Acute effects of pyrethroids and nectar toxins, at a dose of 10 ng/bee (37 ng/bee for GTX I), on honeybee motor function and wing fanning behaviour.
This figure illustrates how compounds affect the percentage of time, number of bouts and mean duration of: (A-C) walking; (D-F) still; (G-I) upside down; (J-L) wing fanning. Sample size N = 16/treatment. * indicates P<0.05. [C = control, Ac = aconitine, Al = allethrin, GTX = grayanotoxin I, Cyf = cyfluthrin, Flu = tau-fluvalinate, Per = permethrin].
Fig 3.
Acute effects of pyrethroids and nectar toxins, at a dose of 10 ng/bee (37 ng/bee for grayanotoxin I), on honeybee grooming behaviour.
This figure illustrates how compounds affected the percentage of time that bees spent: (A) grooming (pooled total of all grooming behaviours); (B) abdomen grooming; (C) leg grooming; (D) facial grooming (E) proboscis grooming; (F) antennal grooming. Sample size N = 16/treatment. * indicates P<0.05. [C = control, Ac = aconitine, Al = allethrin, GTX = grayanotoxin I, Cyf = cyfluthrin, Flu = tau-fluvalinate, Per = permethrin].
Table 4.
Pyrethroid/Nectar Toxin Study Summary Statistics.
P values and Chi-squared values (with degrees of freedom indicated) for statistical analysis of motor, wing fanning and total grooming behaviour.
Table 5.
Pyrethroid/Nectar Toxin Study Summary Statistics.
P value and Chi-square values (with degrees of freedom indicated) for statistical analysis of grooming behaviour.
Fig 4.
Acute effects of two concentrations of GTX (10 μM and 100 μM) on honeybee motor function and wing fanning.
This figure illustrates how the different concentrations of GTX affect the percentage of time, number of bouts and mean duration of: (A-C) walking; (D-F) still; (G-I) upside down; (J-L) wing fanning. Sample size N = 16/treatment. * indicates P<0.05. [C = control, Ac = aconitine, Al = allethrin, GTX = grayanotoxin I, Cyf = cyfluthrin, Flu = tau-fluvalinate, Per = permethrin].
Table 6.
GTX Dose-Dependent Summary Statistics.